ATHLETIC SPOETS 



EECEEATIONS FOR BOYS. 



COMPEISING 



CEICKET. 

CEOQUET. 

LAWI^- BILLIAEDS. 

KNOCK-'EM-DOWIs". 

AUIs"T SALLY. 

GYM^i'ASTICS. 

SWIMMIJ7G. 

SKATIIIG. 



AECHEEY. 

EENCI]S^G. 

BEOADSWOED. 

EIDING. 

DEIYI^^G. 

EOAYING. 

SAILING. 

ETC. ETC. 



BY 



THE EEV. J. G. WOOD, M.A. 



LONDON: 

EOUTLEDGE, WAENE, AND ROUTLEDGE, 

TAREINGDON STREET. 
NEW YOEK : 56, WALKER STEEET. 

1861. 



•W6 



LONDON: 

SAVIUi AMD EDWAEDS, PEINTEES, CHAMDOS STBEET, 
COYENT GAEDEN. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 



The Laws'of' Cricket* 2 

The Laws of Single Wicket . . 6 

Single Wicket 6 

Double Wicket 8 

The Management of the Sides . 8 

The Fielding 9 

The Bowler 10 

The Wicket Keeper's Office . . 11 

Long Stop 12 

The Batsmen or Strikers ... 13 

Duties of the Umpires .... 16 

Dress 17 

Croquet 18 

Eules for the Game of Croquet . 19 

Lawn" Billiaeds 22 

Knock-'em-Dowk" 22 

Aunt Sally 23 

Gymnastics 24 

General Directions 24 

Exercises without Apparatus . . 25 

Commencement 25 

Dress 25 

Economy of Power .... 25 

Extension 26 

Toe Practice 26 

Knee Practice 26 

Sitting Practice 27 

Exercises on the Parallel Bars . 29 
The Bars and their Construc- 
tion 29 

The Giant Stride or Flying Step 32 

Structure of the Giant Stride . 32 

Chmbing the Board 32 

Climbing the Pole 33 

Climbing the Rope 33 

The Horizontal Bar . ; . . . 34 

Hanging on the Pole .... 34 



PAGE 

Swinging 35 

The Great Circle 36 

Kicking the Bar 36 

Passing through the Arms . . 36 

Rising on the Bar 36 

The Roll-over 37 

Sitting on the Bar 37 

Leaving the Bar 37 

Bar-jumping 37 

Circling the Bar 38 

Letter L 38 

Roasting-jack 38 

The Trussed Fowl 38 

The True-lovers' Knot ... 38 

The L Roll 39 

The Grasshopper 39 

Standing on the Bar .... 39 

Hanging by the Legs ... 39 

Hanging by the Triangle . . 39 

Hanging by the Feet .... 40 

Kissing the Bar 40 

The Wooden Horse 40 

Construction of the Horse . . 40 

Side-saddle ....... 43 

Swimming 45 

By the Water 46 

Preparations 46 

Entering the Water 47 

Temperature of the Water . . 48 

Temperature of the Bather . . 48 

A Piece of Advice 48 

Time for Bathing 49 

Making a Start 49 

Learning the Stroke 49 

The Leg-stroke 50 

General Directions for Attitude 50 

Management of the Breath . . 50 

Plunging 51 

The " Header" 51 

Leaping from a Height .... 52 

Leaping into Shallow Water . . 53 

Diving 52 



37 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 



Eeaching the Surface .... 53 

The " Steamer" 53 

Swimming on the Back ... 54 

floating 54 

Treading Water 54 

Swimming like a Dog .... 55 

The Cramp 55 

Swimming under Difficulties . , 55 

The Washing-tub 55 

Creeping 56 

Hand over Hand 56 

Sea-bathing 56 

Managing the Waves .... 56 

The Tides 57 

Bathing from a Boat .... 57 

Bathing from the Shore . . 57 

Skating 58 

The Ice 59 

Preparations 59 

The Skate 59 

Putting on the Skates .... 61 

Getting on the Ice 61 

Starting 61 

Skating backwards 62 

Outside Edge 62 

The Cross-roll 62 

Figure of Eight 63 

Attitude of the Legs 63 

Figure of Three 63 

Outside Edge backwards ... 64 

Back Cross-roll 64 

Spread Eagle 65 

Ice-waltzing 65 

The Quadrille 65 

• Archeex 67 

Bows 69 

TheStrmg 69 

Stringing the Bow 70 

The Arrows 71 

The Quiver 71 

The Bracer, Glove, Belt, Pouch, 

Tassel, and Grease-box . . 71 

The Target 72 

Butts 73 

Position 74 

Eoving 75 

Clout bhooting 75 

Flight Shooting 75 

General Observations .... 75 

Fen-cing 77 

Fencing as an Art 79 

The Guard 79 

The Appel 80 

Advancing and retreating , . 80 

The Longe SO 

Parades 81 

Straight Thrusts, Disengage- 
ments, &e 83 

Feints 85 



PAGE 

Time Thrusts in Opposition . . 86 
Time Thrusts out of Opposition 87 



Quart and Tierce, &c 87 

The Assault 89 

Disarming 91 

Concluding Observations ... 91 

Bboadswoed 93 

Positions 93 

Target 94 

Cuts and Guards 95 

Cuts. . 95 

Points 96 

Guards 97 

Parry 97 

Hanging Guard 97 

Inside Guard 98 

Outside Guard 99 

Attack and Defence 99 

Draw Swords 100 

Eecover Swords 100 

Carry Swords 100 

Slope Swords 101 

Eeturn Swords 101 

Practices 101 

Second Practice 102 

Third Practice 102 

Fourth Practice 102 

Fifth Practice 103 

Fort and Feeble .... 104 

Drawing Cut 104 

General Advice 104 

EiniifG 105 

Mounting 106 

The Seat and Balance . . . .107 

Holding the Eeins 108 

The Correspondence 108 

Aids 109 

Animations, Soothings, and Cor- 
rections 110 

Vices Ill 

The Walk 114 

Trotting 115 

The Canter and Gallop .... 116 

The Standmg Leap 117 

The Flying Leap 118 

Concluding Observations . . . 118 

Driving 120 

Introduction 120 

The Horse in Harness .... 122 

The Horse 122 

The Harness 122 

The Carriage 123 

Putting-to 124 

Directions for Driving .... 124 

EowiNG 126 

Sailing 135 



I 



ATHLETIC SPORTS. 




CRICKET. 

UxTiL within tlie last eighty years this game was very rarely played, 
but there is plenty of evidence as to its existence as a game in the 
sixteenth century, and probably earlier even than that. But it is 
chiefly in the present century that cricket has become popular with 
all classes, and that it has taken the position which it now enjoys, as 
the leading national game played out of doors. There are several 
peculiarities in which cricket stands unrivalled at present, and which 
I trust may long be preserved to it. These are — first, its uniting all 
classes ; for the peer and the peasant are constantly seen in the same 
eleven ; and in a county match the best men will be selected, let 
their position in society be what it may ; secondly, the general ab- 
sence of gambling ; for though betting cannot be entirely prevented, 
it is less associated with cricket than with any other sport of the 
same degree of popularity; thirdly, its healthful tendency; and 

B 



1 



2 



CEICKET. 



fourthly, the absence of intemperance as an adjunct. It is now the 
favourite game of the country village and the county tovs^n, as well 
as of the larger commercial cities and of the great metropolis itself, 
where the M.C.C. at Lord's, and the Surrey Club at the Kennington 
Oval, as well as some others of less note, keep cricket going through- 
out the season. This lasts from spring to late autumn, depending a 
good deal upon the weather, for it is a game which requires a dry 
sod, as well as freedom from any present fall of rain. 

The game of cricket is played either as what is called '*The 
Single-Wicket Game," or as Double-Wicket." 

Single- Wicket requires one wicket, one popping crease, one 
bowling crease, one ball, one bat, and any number of players ar- 
ranged in two sides, not exceeding seven or eight of a side. With 
these the game is played subject to the special laws of single-wicket, 
which differ in some essential points from those of double-wicket. 

Double- Wicket is played with one ball, two bats, two wickets, 
two popping creases, two bowling creases, and two sides of players — 
one of which shall consist of eleven, but the other, though usually 
confined to the same number, may be extended to any other. Two 
Umpires are also appointed to decide upon the proper carrying out 
of the rules. 

THE LAWS OF CEICKET. 

The following laws are those which are now universally employed 
throughout England and Scotland, having been carefully revised by 
the Marylebone Club, that being the highest authority in this 
game : — 

1. The Ball must weigh not less than five ounces and a half, nor 
more than five ounces and three-quarters. It must measure not less 
than 9 inches, nor more than 9~ inches in circumference. At the 
beginning of each innings either party may call for a new ball. 

2. The Bat must not exceed 4x inches in the widest part ; it must 
not be more than 38 inches in length. 

3. The Stumps must be three in number ; 27 inches out of the 
ground ; the bails 8 inches in length ; the stumps of equal and of 
sufficient thickness to prevent the ball from passing through. 

4. The Bowling Crease must be in a line with the stumps ; 
6 feet 8 inches in length ; the stumps in the centre ; with a return 
crease at each end towards the bowler at right angles. 

5. The Popping Crease must be 4 feet from the wicket, and 
parallel to it, unlimited in length, but not shorter than the bowling- 
crease. 

6. The Wickets must be pitched opposite to each other by the 
umpires, at the distance of 22 yards. 

7. It shall not be lawful for either party during a match, without 
the consent of the other, to alter the ground by rolling, watering, 
covering, mowing, or beating, except at the commencement of each 
innings, when the ground may be swept and rolled at the request of 
either party, such request to be made to one of the umpires within 
one minute after the conclusion of the former innings. This rule is 



CEICKET. 



3 



not meant to prevent the striker from beating the ground with his 
bat near to the spot where he stands during the innings, nor to pre- 
vent the bowler from filling up holes with sawdust, &c., when the 
ground is wet. 

8. After rain the wickets may be changed with the consent of 
both parties. 

9. The Bowler shall deliver the ball with one foot on the ground 
behind the bowling crease, and within the return crease, and shall 
bowl four balls before he change w^ickets, which he shall be permitted 
to do only once in the same innings. 

10. The ball must be bowled, not thrown or jerked, and the hand 
must not be above the shoulder in deHvery ; and whenever the bowler 
shall so closely infringe on this rule in either of the above particu- 
lars as to make it difficult for the umpire at the bowler's wicket to 
judge whether the ball has been delivered within the true intent and 
meaning of this rule or not, the um^pire shall call " no ball." 

11. He may require the striker at the wicket from which he is 
bowling to stand on that side of it which he may direct. 

12. If the bowler shall toss the ball over the striker's head, or 
bowl it so wide that in the opinion of the umpire it shall not be 
fairly within the reach of the batsman, he shall adjudge one run to 
the party receiving the innings, either with or without an appeal, 
which shall be put down to the score of wide balls ; such ball shall 
not be reckoned as one of the four balls ; but if the batsman shall 
by any means bring himself within reach of the ball, the run shall 
not be adjudged. 

13. If the bowler deliver a " no ball" or a wide ball," the striker 
shall be allowed as many runs as he can get, and he shall not be 
put out except by running out. In the event of no run being ob- 
tained by any other means, then one run shall be added to the score 
of *'no balls" or **wide balls," as the case may be. All runs ob- 
tained for wide balls" to be scored to wide balls." The names of 
the bowlers who bowl *'wide balls" or *'no balls" in future to be 
placed on the score, to show the parties by whom either score is 
made. If the ball shall first«touch any part of the striker's dress or 
person (except his hands), the umpire shall call leg bye." 

14. At the beginning of each innings the umpire shall call 
'*play;" from that time to the end of each innings no trial ball 
shall be allowed to any bowler. 

15. The Striker is Out if either of the bails be bowled off, or if 
a stump be bowled out of the ground ; 

16. Or, if the ball, from the stroke of the bat, or hand, but not 
the wrist, be held before it touch the ground, although it be hugged 
to the body of the catcher : 

17. Or, if in striking, or at any other time while the ball shall be 
in pla)^ both his feet shall be over the popping crease, and his wicket 
put down, except his bat be grounded within it ; 

18. Or, if in striking at the ball, he hit down his wicket ; 

19. Or, if under pretence of running, or otherwise, either of the 

b2 



4 



strikers prevent a ball from being caught, the striker of the ball is 
out ; 

20. Or, if the ball be struck, and he wilfully strike it again ; 

21. Or, if in running, the wicket be struck down by a throw, or 
by the hand or arm (with ball in hand), before his bat (in hand) or 
some part of his person be grounded over the popping crease. But 
if both the bails be off, a stump must be struck out of the ground; 

22. Or, if any part of the striker's dress knock down the wicket ; 

23. Or, if the striker touch or take up the ball while in play, un- 
less at the request of the opposite party; 

24. Or^ if with any part of his person he stop the ball, which in 
the opinion of the umpire at the bowler's wicket shall have been 
pitched in a straight line from it to the striker's wicket, and would 
have hit it. 

25. If the players have crossed each other, he that runs for the 
wicket which is put down is out. 

26. A ball being caught no runs shall be reckoned. 

27. A striker being run out, that run which he and his partner 
were attempting shall not be reckoned. 

28. If a lost ball be called, the striker shall be allowed six runs ; 
but if more than six shall have been run before ^' lost ball" shall 
have been called, then the striker shall have all which have been 
run. 

29. After the ball shall have been finalty settled in the wicket 
keeper's or bowler's hand, it shall be considered dead ; but when the 
bowler is about to deliver the ball, if the striker at his wicket go out- 
side the popping crease before such actual delivery, the said bowler 
may put him oat, unless (w4th reference to the 21st law) his bat in 
hand, or some part of his person be within the popping crease. 

30. The striker shall not retire from his wicket and return to it 
to complete bis innings after another has been in, without the consent 
of the opposite party. 

31. No substitute shall in any case be allowed to stand out, or 
run between wickets for another person without the consent of the 
opposite party ; and in case any person shall be allowed to run for 
another, the striker shall be out if either he or his substitute be off 
the ground in manner mentioned in laws 17 and 21, while the ball is 
in play. 

32. In all cases where a substitute shall be allowed, the consent 
of the opposite party shall also be obtained as to the person to act 
as substitute, and the place in the field which he shall take. 

33. If any fieldsman stop the ball with his hat, the ball shall be 
considered dead, and the opposite party shall add five runs to their 
score : if any be run they shall have five in all. 

34. The ball having been hit, the striker may guard his wicket 
with his bat or with any part of his body except his hands ; that the 
23rd law may not be disobeyed. 

35. The Wicket Keeper shall not take the ball for the purpose 
of stumping until it has passed the wicket ; he shall not move until 
the ball be out of the bowler's hand ; he shall not by any noise 



CEICKET. 



5 



incommode the striker; and if any part of his person be over 
or before the wicket, although the ball hit it, the striker shall not 
be out. 

36. The Umpires are the sole judges of fair or unfair play ; and 
all disputes shall be determined by them, each at his own wicket ; 
but in case of a catch which the umpire at the wicket bowled from 
cannot see sufficiently to decide upon, he may apply to the other um- 
pire, whose opinion shall be conclusive. 

37. The umpires in all matches shall pitch fair wickets ; and the 
parties shall toss-up for choice of innings. The umpires shall change 
wickets after each party has had one innings. 

38. They shall allow two minutes for each striker to come in, and 
ten minutes between each innings. When the umpire shall call 
*'play," the party refusing to play shall lose the match. 

39. They are not to order a striker out unless appealed to by the 
adversaries ; 

40. But if one of the bowler's feet be not on the ground behind 
the bowling crease and within the return crease when he shall 
deliver the ball, the umpire at his wicket, unasked, must call "no 
ball." 

41. If either of the strikers run a short run, the umpire must call 
" one short." 

42. No umpire shall be allowed to bet. 

43. No umpire is to be changed during a match, unless with the 
consent of both parties, except in case of violation of the 42nd 
law ; then either party may dismiss the transgressor. 

44. After the delivery of four balls the umpire must call ''over," 
but not until the ball shall be finally settled in the wicket keeper's or 
bowler's hand ; the ball shall then be considered dead ; nevertheless, 
if an idea be en tertained that either of the strikers is out, a question 
may be put previously to, but not after, the delivery of the next 
bali. 

45. The umpire must take especial care to call no ball" instantly 
upon delivery; '* wide ball" as soon as it shall pass the striker. 

46. The Players who go in second shall follow their innings, if 
they have obtained 80 runs less than their antagonists, except in all 
matches limited to only one day's play, when the number shall be 
limited to 60 instead of 80. 

47. When one of the strikers shall have been put out, the use of 
the bat shall not be allowed to any person until the next striker 
shall come in. 

Note. — The Committee of the Marylebone Club think it desirable 
that, previously to the commencement of a match, one of each side 
should be declared the manager of it ; and that the new laws with 
respect to substitutes may be carried out in a spirit of fairness and 
mutual concession, it is their wish that such substitutes be allowed 
in all reasonable cases, and that the umpire should inquire if it is 
done with the consent of the manager on the opposite side. 

Complaints having been made that it is the practice of some players 



6 



CEICKET. 



when at the wicket to make holes in the ground for a footing, the 
Committee are of opinion that the umpires should be empowered to 
prevent it. 

THE LAWS OF SINGLE WICKET. 

1. When there shall be less than five players on a side, bounds 
shall be placed twenty- two yards each in a line from the off and leg 
stump. 

2. The ball must be hit before the bounds to entitle the striker to 
a run, which run cannot be obtained unless he touch the bowling- 
stump or crease in a line with his bat, or some part of his person, or 
go beyond them, returning to the popping crease as at double 
wicket, according to the 21st law. 

3. When the striker shall hit the ball, one of his feet must be on 
the ground, and behind the popping crease, otherwise the umpire 
shall call ''no hit." 

4. AVhen there shall be less than five players on a side, neither 
byes nor overthrows shall be allowed, nor shall the striker be caught 
out behind the wicket, nor stumped out. 

5. The fieldsman must return the ball so that it shall cross the 
play between the wicket and the bowling stump, or between the 
bowling stump and the bounds ; the striker may run till the ball be 
so returned. 

6. After the striker shall have made one run, if he start again he 
must touch the bowling stump, and turn before the ball cross the 
play to entitle him to another. 

7. The striker shall be entitled to three runs for lost ball, and the 
same number for ball stopped with bat, with reference to the 28th 
and 33rd laws of double wicket. 

8. When there shall be more than four players on aside, there shall 
be no bounds. All hits, byes, and overthrows shall then be allowed. 

9. The bowler is subject to the same laws as at double wicket. 

10. Not more than one minute shall be allowed betw^een each ball. 

SINGLE WICKET. 

Two persons can play at single wicket, one being bowler, the 
other batsman ; they should toss-up for first innings, and the 
bowder should pitch the wickets, whilst the batsman measures oflf the 
distance for the bowling stump, which both must agree to before- 
hand. Next measure on the ground a l)at's length from the middle 
stump to the bowling stump, and there make a mark to serve as a 
popping crease. Place the bat upright on the m.ark where the 
measure came to, and ask the bowler if the bat is properly before 
the centre of the wicket, and then make another mark on the ground ; 
this is called block. The bowler must now begin to play, and 
the proper directions for his movements will be found in a subsequent 
page under the head of Bowler." The batsman should endeavour 
to hit any ball which comes within range, taking care to keep hi& 
left shoulder forward, and to stand firmly on his right foot ; he should 
notice how the ball pitches, so that he may guess how far it is likely 



CEICKET. 



7 



to rise, and judge whether it is worth while hitting it hard, and so 
get a run, or whether by blocking it off he may disappoint his 
opponent, and so make the game his own. When blocking, never 
allow the tip of the bat to come before the handle, as in that case, 
the ball will rise into the air, and perhaps enable the bowler to catch 
it. In striking, keep the bat as nearly perpendicular as possible; by 
so doing, more of the wicket is covered than when the bat leans either 
to the right or left. Further directions for the batsman will be 
found under that head in another part. It will be as well for the 
batsman to return the ball up to the bowler, after it has passed the 
wicket, as it is very inconvenient, not having any one behind for 
that purpose; the bowler, in that case, must not put down the wicket 
when the batsman is off his ground, unless he runs himself out. The 
batsman in running must touch the bowling stump either with his 
bat or person, or else it is no run. 

When three play, they must toss-up for innings, the last player 
must pitch the wicket and bowl, and the second after placing the 
bowling stump, take the part q£ a fieldsman, and place himself on 
the left hand of the bowler, about three times his distance from the 
wicket ; the first player is batsman, and marks the popping crease ; 
if the batsman hits the ball nearer the fieldsman than the bowler, or 
so wide away that the latter would have some distance to run, the 
former should pick it up or catch it, and return it to the bowler. 
When the batsman runs, the bowler should instantly run to the 
wicket, and the fieldsman should throw the ball to him, so that he 
may catch it. This plan is much better than running to the wicket 
with it, as the ball can be thrown with greater celerity than a player 
can run. The batsman must not begin to run after the ball has been 
thrown in before the bowling stump, but he may until it has. When 
the first batsman is out, the fieldsman should take his place, the 
bowler become fieldsman, and so on, until each one has had his 
innings, bowled, and been out in the field. 

If four players engage in this game, the first is batsman, the 
second takes the field, the third stands behind the wicket, and the 
fourth bowls. When the batsman runs off his ground, if the wicket- 
keeper has the ball in his hands, he should put down the wicket : he 
must not, however, touch the ball until it has passed the wicket. 
The necessary instructions for this player will be found under the 
head of Wicket keeper." The bowler should not run to the wicket 
when the batsman attempts to run, but most throw the ball up to 
the wicket keeper, and the fieldsman should do the same. When five 
or even more play, the additional players must take the field. 

If any person wishes to join the game whilst it is going on, he 
must take his post in the field, and continue there till the last bats- 
man is out, w^hen he takes his innings. If no wicket keeper was 
appointed at the beginning of the game, there must be no stumping 
out, although a fieldsman may be directed to take that place. If 
there are less than six players, the batsman cannot run when the 
ball is struck behind the wicket. 

Single wicket may be played in two different w^ays : in the first. 



8 



CRICKET. 



when less than five players on a side are engaged, the batsman cannot 
be stumped out, and if he moves off his ground whilst hitting the 
ball, it is no hit, and he must not run. All the hits should be before 
the wicket, and to ascertain whether they are so, two stumps must 
be placed, one on each side of the wicket, parallel with and twenty- 
two yards from it; should the ball, when hit, pass behind either of 
these stumps before reaching them, the umpire should call out 

behind wicket," or else *'no run," and no run is allowed: but if 
the ball goes as far as the stump, and then runs behind the line of 
the wicket, the fieldsman must pick it up, and keeping outside the 
stump, run until he is in front of the line, and then throw it in; if 
he acts contrary to this rule, the umpire must order the ball to be 
carried back behind the wickets, until beyond the stump, and there 
to be thrown in, the batsman running all the while. 

The other method of playing single wicket is called ''All hits," 
and is played only when there are five or more on each side ; the 
batsman in this may be stumped out, he may also leave his ground to 
hit, and the wicket need not be touched except in front to put him 
out; all hits before or behind wicket, bye balls, &c., tell when run 
for. The runs in this game are only fifteen yards long ; the bowling 
stump should be twenty- two yards from the wicket, and at about 
the distance of a yard out of the line of bowling, and fifteen yards 
from the wicket a mark is placed, on or over which the striker must 
put his bat or person, before it can be considered a run. 

DOUBLE WICKET 

May be considered, for all practical purposes, to consist of tw^o sides 
of eleven players each. One of these, according to the result of the 
**toss for sides," has the first innings, and two of their party defend 
the wickets with a bat each, the others being at liberty till their 
turns come respectively. By the other side, who are now "fielding," 
the attack is maintained ; their object being to "take the wickets" 
of the strikers, by bowling at either of them four balls consecutively 
from the bowling crease of the opposite wucket. If the bail of the 
wicket is knocked off by the ball, or the stump is bowled out of the 
ground, or if any of the events occur which are defined by law 15 
and following ones up to 34, the batsman is ''out," and is replaced 
by another of his party, until the whole side are put out seriatim. 
If, on the other hand, the ball is struck by the batsman, or if certain 
other contingencies happen (for which see rules), the batsman 
may run to the opposite popping crease and score one, and back 
again, or even a second time, or more, if possible ; for each of which 
**runs" a score of one is to be made. The side which makes the 
greatest score is the winner. 

THE MANAGEMENT OF THE SIDES. 

In club-games two managers or captains are fixed upon, one for 
each side, who are generally the two best bowlers, they being the 
most scarce and valuable players ; these choose their ten assistants, 
one after the other, from the members present, and allot to each their 



CRICKET. 



9 



respective positions when fielding. In matches, the match is first 
made between two clubs, and then the eleven players are selected 
from each club by a committee, or by general consent, or by first 
appointing a manager, who then picks out his men, and afterwards 
takes their entire control in the field. 



THE FIELDING 

Requires the following men for the several places, which are filled 
up by those who are best qualified, according to the opinion of the 
manager. Thus, some men are fit for one place, and yet are very 
bad in another ; and consequently, the eye of an experienced 
cricketer is required to select them and fix them accordingly. One 
bowler at a time is indispensable, who bowls four balls, called an 
*' over," and then the whole of the fielders walk over to the opposite 
side of the field, and another "over" of four balls is delivered from 
the opposite wicket by another bowler. In this way there is a con- 
stant walking from one side to the other, which has its advantages, 
because it prevents the danger of catching cold in bad weather, that 
might result if the same position were maintained for a longer 
period. The following diagram will explain the position of the 
eleven men in an *'over" by a fast bowler, as well as those of the 
strikers and umpires : — 





Off Side. 






8 


7 


9 










6 


U 




4 




IJ 1 




1 

u 


3 


10 


Ox Side. 




11 



1. Fast bowler. 

2. Wicket keeper. 

3. Long stop. 

4. Short slip. 

5. Point. 



DiAGEAM OP Field eoe Fast Bowlijtg. 

11. Leg. 



6. Long slip. 

7. Mid-wicket. 

8. Long-field off. 

9. Cover point. 
10. Mid- wicket on. 



UU. Umpires. 
SS. Strikers. 



10 



CEICKET. 



THE BOWLEE 

Whose "over" is now going on according to the annexed diagram,, 
being what is called a fast bowler, the field are arranged to suit his 
peculiar style, which is now almost always the round-hand delivery. 
The under-hand style may occasionally answer ; but as the ball is 
delivered straight from the bowler to the wicket, and has very little 
side bias or twist, it is much more easy to guard and hit than the 
round-hand delivery, or the slow twisting style, as practised by 
Clarke and his followers. For the sake of simplicity, we will first 
consider a single '^over" of this round-hand style. The bowler 
should have made himself as perfect as possible in this kind of 
delivery, and should stick to it pertinacious^ if he has fully made up 
his mind that it suits him, and that he can master its requisites. 
For' this style he requires a full muscular development, knack, a 
good eye, and a power of enduring fatigue ; for it is no slight task 
to deliver two or three hundred balls in a morning with all the force 
of which the arm is capable. Accuracy of aim is the great difficult}^ 
in this style, and few men, unless they are more than commonly 
gifted, and also constantly in practice, can arrive at anything like 
certainty in their balls. Even Cafiyn would miss nearly as many 
as he would take, and very few can come up to his proficiency in 
this particular. Constant daily practice, not too long continued at 
one time, is the only way to arrive at perfection ; and without 
playing cricket this may be managed, even in wet weather, by 
bowling in an outhouse, against stumps fixed in front of any soft 
object like straw or hay. In this way every variety of ball may be 
attempted, and the hand and eye may acquire a very great degree 
of co-operative power. But many good men in this kind of practice 
are upset du-ectly when engaged in the real game, either from over- 
excitement, or from a failure at first to do what they hoped, or 
from other causes acting upon an irritable organization. Hence, a 
quiet and composed frame of mind is as necessary as a vigorous 
bodily organization ; and it is only when both are combined that a 
bowler is to be depended on. Numberless instructions and rules are 
given as to length of run, holding the ball, &c., but there is nothing 
like practice, and every man has a way of his own ; though of course 
there are some broad rules — as, that the ball must be held in the 
fingers, and not grasped by the whole hand. The grand point to 
gain is a twisting course after the ball touches the ground, which is 
highly deceptive to the eye of the striker. Indeed, to reverse the 
law of mechanics, which tells us that in objects propelled against a 
plane surface, the angle of reflexion is equal to the angle of in- 
cidence," is the highest ambition of the bowler. Without this twist, 
the striker can calculate to a nicety where the ball is coming, and if 
bis eye and hand are good, can play it accordingly; but with a 
deceptively rotating ball, it appears to be running clear of the 
wicket, and yet turns round the bat and takes the outside stump. 
The bowler, in practising, requires lessons from a professional even 
more than for batting ; for the one is now a much more acquired art 



CEICKET. 



11 



than the other. Practice, with the aid of a little instruction, will 
show a quick striker how to play the balls of any bowler with whom 
he plays much ; and though this will not perhaps enable him to play 
to Clarke or Wisden, yet he only wants their bowling to him to 
enable him to do so — that is to say, if he has "the gift," and a little 
perseverance. But it is not merely putting a good batsman at the 
wicket which will make a good bowler, thoiagh it may improve him ; 
he requires actual demonstrations from a master of the art before he 
can acquire the command of the ball ; and without this he would 
have to go through the same course which the earlier inventors of 
the various styles achieved for themselves, but which collectively 
now form the stock in trade of the regular professional. In this 
way the bowler, then, should learn his art ; and should, while he 
keeps to one kind of delivery, endeavour to acquire as great a variety 
of distance, pace, twist, &c., as he possibly can, so as to puzzle his 
antagonist by giving him a different pitch and twist on each occasion. 
It is here that human bowling beats the catapult, which will dehver 
a ball with much greater accuracy and powder than any arm can give 
it ; but as in it the laws of mechanics are strictly fulfilled, the bats- 
man soon learns to play its balls, and by practice before it, he will 
be able to set it at defiance. On the other hand, the scientific 
bowler, whether fast or slow, accommodates himself to his antagonist, 
looks for his weak points, and, where his armour is open, he finds 
room to insinuate his ball. Such are the leading principles of this 
art, for the filling up of which I must refer my readers to a regular 
bowler, either amateur or professional ; or, if these are not to be had, 
to The Cricket Field," where the subject is treated at length. In 
playing matches, it is always desirable to increase the difficulty of 
the batsmen by choosing two bowlers as unlike one another as 
possible, and thus not only to vary the balls in each *'over," but 
also those given by the respective bowlers ; and if they do not effect 
the object, to put on another, if there is a third good bowler in the 
eleven. The second bowler is usually made short slip, and if a third 
is likely to be wanted, he is kept to mid- wicket or cover point ; but 
this will in great measure depend upon his own choice, and upon his 
peculiar capabilities and powers of fielding. 

THE WICKET KEEPER'S OFEICE 

Is no sinecure in fast bowling ; and with such pace as our bowlers 
now give the ball it is really a service of great danger to an inex- 
perienced hand. Tubular gloves and guards for the hands and legs 
are absolutely required, and without them few men would go through 
a single match uninjured ; indeed, without gloves the first ball 
would generally suffice. There is very little to be said as to the 
duties of wicket keeper, which are, in fact, only to stop the ball if he 
can, and be ready to stump the striker if he is off his ground ; or, in 
running, to be ready to catch and stump before the striker grounds 
his bat. But though theoi-etically there is little difficulty, yet in 
practice there is the greatest possible ; because the twist of the ball 
is as puzzling to him as to the striker, and when he expects it to 



12 



CEICKET. 



come into his hands it often takes his chest or his face, or flies clean 
off him altogether. Practice and a quick eye are the requisites for 
this place, together with strong hard hands. 

LONG STOP 

Is only an assistant to wicket keeper, and he should be that 
player's double, with the power in addition of returning the ball to 
him with precision, yet without too much pace. He should be an 
exceedingly good and long thrower, but his especial quality is the 
power of stopping balls with certainty, and returning them quickly. 

The Rest of the Field have nearly the same duties — namely, 
first stopping or catching, and then rapidly returning the ball ; to do 
which properly they must often cover a great deal of ground by run- 
ning to balls falling at a distance from their several stations. Beyond 
these points the chief art lies in the position assigned to each by the 
captain of the eleven, who varies it according to the bowler and the 
striker. In the diagram given at page 9, the field is arranged for 
ordinaiy round- hand fast bowling, and ^* point" is placed about 12 
or 15 yards from the striker, well supported by his cover." 

Short slip" is also well off the wicket, according to the force of the 
bowler, with "long slip" to cover him ; his principal use is to catch 
the ball, if, as often happens, it is raised off the bat into the air by 
the spin given to it by the bowler. Quick throwing is the next in 
importance as a qualification for all fieldsmen after stopping and 
catching, which they ought all to be thorough adepts in, with both 
hands, or with either, and at all distances. In catching with both 
hands, the art consists in putting them firmly together at the wrists, 
one above the other ; not widely apart, which is sure to cause the 
player to miss, and earn for himself the unpleasant nickname of 
"butter-fingers." The attention must never flag for a moment, and the 
man who "stands at ease" in the cricket field is never to be relied on — 
that is to say, if he stands so after " play" is called. In all cases 
the fieldsman who stops a ball returns it either to the nearest wicket, 
or to the one which is least defended — that is to say, which is the 
furthest from the batsman who is running to it ; but, unless there is 
any good reason, the ball from a long distance is better returned to 
wicket keeper than to bowler, on account of the latter's duties requiring 
the more delicate use of his hands. Whenever wicket keeper ad- 
vances to meet a ball, slip must take his place at the wicket, in order 
to be ready to stump by a quick return from wicket keeper. In balls 
which are hit far away, every man who stands to receive a throw 
ought to be backed up by the nearest player whose station is out of 
the line, in case the first should miss it ; and this is of the utmost im- 
portance to good fielding, and is a part of cricket in which country 
clubs are lamentably deficient. 



CRICKET. 



13 



THE BATSMEN, OR STRIKERS, 

Should stand in the attitude well depicted 
in the illustration ; and in playing fast balls 
should rarely attempt to strike them, unless 
they are more or less wide of the wicket. A 
straight pitch must be stopped, not hit ; 
and it is in this point that the scientific 
batsman differs from the bolder, but more 
rude player ; the latter may sometimes suc- 
ceed in making a few extraordinary hits, 
which may tell up a score of 15 or 20, but 
the former is the man who makes a good . — 

season average, and is seldom put out for 

0. Let us now suppose the four balls of 
one **over" played; and first let us, be- 
fore we go into the description of the playing of these balls, ascer- 
tain what are the varieties of balls. I have already said that the 
essence of a well-delivered ball is its uncertainty, as measured by 
the batsman's eye. Hence, a good ball, and an apparently uncertain 
though really straight ball, are synonymous terms, while those balls 
which go wide of the wicket, and at the same time are evidently so, 
are the very bad balls. Again, balls are either length balls" or 
the reverse, according as they are pitched, or not, at the distance 
which is most puzzlinej to the batsman's eye. There are many 
subdivisions of these balls, but it answers no good purpose to at- 
tempt a description of them, especially as a 
few minutes with a practical man will do 
more than a dozen pages of description ; 
and as a master is absolutely necessary in 
cricket, so it is throwing time away to at- 
tempt to teach it by theory. But, now 
then, supposing a fast ball of a bad length 
is bowled a foot or two on the oflT-side, the 
object will be to hit it hard and low between 
point and mid- wicket, just out of reach of © 
the former, as in this sketch. Supposing this „ 
done by an advance of left leg, and a for- 
ward cut as here shown, it will be fielded 
by cover, who will throw up either to 
mid wicket or point. These men will each retire or advance, ac- 
cording to the distance he has to throw, so as to be just at the full 
limit of his pitch. They, again, will at once pass the ball on to the 
bowler, or w^icket keeper, and the striker will either be stumped or 
escape according to circumstances, it being presumed that one or 
two runs have been made. Next, suppose a good ball has been given 
to mid- stump, pitching at such an awkward distance from the pop- 
ping crease as to be difficult to block, the striker must "play for- 
ward," at his full stretch, or nearly so, still, of course, keeping his 





14 



CRICKET. 



foot within the crease, but blocking the 
ball at a proper distance from its taking the 
ground, and before it has had time to twist 
much. On the other hand, the third ball 
may also be a good ball, but pitched fur- 
ther back ; and here the difficulty is to 
avoid being put out by the ball passing 
under the bat, to guard against which the 
batsman steps back, and so avoids his fate, 
unless he manages in escaping Scylla to 
fall into Charybdis, by knocking his own 
bail off. Lastly, in the *'over," comes a 
ball slightly wide of leg-stump, and here the 
batsman meets it with a hit to leg, hitting 
-directly across its line with great force, which he can venture upon, 
because it is not in his opinion straight for his wicket. This hit is 
well shown in this sketch. 

This ends the over," and now a slow bowler, who has been short- 
slip, is put on, the fielders all change sides, and the captain arranges 
them as under : — 




On Side. 



11 



10 



1S| 



Is [U 



Off Side. 



DiAGEAM 2.— Slow Bowlixg. {Second over.) 



1. Short slip— (Bowler in 

Diag. 1). 

2. Wicket keeper. 

3. Long stop. 

4. Bowler (slip inDiag. 1), 



5. Point. 

6. Long- slip. 

7. Mid- wicket on, 

8. Long-field oflE". 

9. Additional long on. 



10. Long- field on. 

11. Leg. 

UU. Umpires. 
SS. Strikers. 



CRICKET. 



15 



The captain of the eleven has now changed his tactics, because he 
will have a great deal of hard hitting ; and he hopes to get near 
-catches, from the tendency which good slow balls have to rise from the 
bat when only tipped. " Cover" being comparatively unneces- 
sary, he is brought up as an additional long on, about ten yards 
behind the bowler. With a sure hand at wicket keeper's place, 
long stop also may be put somewhere in front of the wicket, 
depending upon circumstances ; but as a missed ball is a dangerous 
matter, and is often good for two runs, it is a ticklish experiment, 
only justifiable under peculiar circumstances. Mid-wicket" is 
either kept in his old place or he is crossed over to the on side," 
where he will, with some bowlers and batters, be more useful than 
on the off." When the men are properly stationed, the first ball is 
delivered ; but the chances are that no hit is made either to this ball 
or to any other in the over. Slow bowling is much straighter for the 
wicket than fast bowling, or it is no bowling at all ; but for straighter 
here, straighter round a corner (Hibernice) must be read. All cuts 
must be avoided, and the balls must be either carefully blocked, or 
they must be played with a perpendicular bat, so as to cover the 
wicket in the whole stroke, and to have no room for the ball to reach 
it except beneath it or round it. In spite of every rule (except the 
right one), these slow balls will find their way to the wicket at times, 
because they have so much spin and twist as to take a devious course 
to their goal. They must therefore be met as near the ground as 
possible before they have had their twist developed ; but at the same 
time nothing but practice will give the proper mode of dealing with 
them. Sometimes here, as in fast bowling, there is a ball wide 
enough to justify a cut" or a ^ 'drive ;" and in such cases these or 
the " draw," as shown in the following sketches, may be successfully 
attempted. 




Such are the most obvious directions for playing cricket ; for the 
more intricate and abstruse questions, the reader is referred to **The 
Cricket Field," already alluded to, which has become the text-book 
for this scientific game. 

The following axioms and definitions explain, as far as description 
will permit without demonstration, the various terms used in 
cricket ; — 



16 



CEICKET. 



1. The varieties of balls are — ^Hengtlis" and ''not lengths;" the 
latter consisting of the following — viz., the toss, tice, long hop, half- 
volley, and ground ball. 

2. Balls are to be met with a full bat — that is, the face of the bat 
is at right angles to the ball, and generally parallel with the wicket. 

3. Straight balls are to be blocked, with the handle of the bat well 
advanced, to prevent the rise of the ball, and with the whole bat 
placed at such a point as will take the ball about a foot from the 
ground. This is effected by advancing or retreating the left foot. 

4. At all doubtful balls, hit straight from the middle of the wicket 
with a perpendicular bat, driving the ball, if possible, to one side, 
between bowler and long field. In doing this, the left elbow must 
be kept well up, and the bat swung gently back to middle stump, 
previously to hitting or driving. 

5. At balls a foot or more wide of the wicket, cuts may be made 
by which the wicket is exposed ; but as from their badness it is safe 
from them, this is of no consequence. There are various modes of 
cutting ; but the main difference is between the perpendicular cut to 
leg and the horizontal one to off side ; and, besides, there are several 
intermediate ones, but the above comprise the chief varieties. In 
all the cuts but one, the right leg is stationary, but sometimes it is 
advanced, as shown in sketch 4. 

6. Attention is the watchword for the fielders, and they should be 
on the qui vive perpetually, not only looking out for catches, but 
being ready to back up one another. Laziness is the bane of the 
country club, whose members will not practise together ; and when 
they do get together, are more inclined to smoke with their hands in 
their pockets than to do their duties. Any man will do his best 
when he has the bat in hand or is bowling, but few will attend to 
their duties as point, short slip, or mid-wicket ; and numbers of balls 
are missed from pure idleness and inattention. 

7. The batsmen, as well as the bowlers, wicket keeper, and cap- 
tain, should arrange signs by which they can readily be understood ; 
so that the former may be of one mind as to running, and that the 
latter may be able to communicate with the fielders without the 
striker understanding their signs. 

DUTIES OF THE UMPIEES 

Are very onerous, and their eyes must be constantly occupied in 
detecting unfair play. Every ball requires watching in its delivery, 
and the umpire must call no ball" at once, if it is improperly given. 
To save trouble in counting ''overs," four small wooden balls may 
be strung on a piece of cord, and held in the hand, and each ball 
counted by slipping one clear of the fingers. This is less trouble 
than using bullets or marbles in the pocket. The wicket keeper's 
umpire should be behind and between the wicket and popping crease, 
so as to command both, and to see that the wicket keeper does not 
put down the bail while the foot of the striker is within the crease. 
This can only be seen well in the above position at ten or twelve 
yards' distance. 



CEICKET. 



17 



DRESS. 

The dress of the cricketer is almost universally a light^ flannel 
jacket, with trousers of the same, or of white duck. A straw hat 
or light cap is generall}^ adopted, though many good players adhere 
to the ordinaiy hat, as protecting the head from balls better than a 
lighter covering. Leg- guards are used in batting and wicket keeping ; 
and also gloves, which some also use in all places in the field. Ox- 
ford shoes, or regular cricket shoes, with spiked soles, complete the 
arrangements. 



18 



C H O Q U E T. 

The Game op Croquet is of French origin, and has been played 
for many years in that country, as well as in India, and also in 
Ireland, where the Oatlands Club has been established for the 
purpose. 

The Implements are balls, hoops, mallets, and sticks. 

The Balls should be made of willow, its lightness and toughness 
being greater than that of any other wood. The size of the ball is 
in a great measure optional ; but those most used are from twelve to 
sixteen inches in circumference. Each ball should be painted a 
different colour, and have a mallet corresponding. The head of the 
mallets are best made of some heavy wood, such as yew, beech, or 
box, but for ladies or children willow is much used. The head 
should be from six to eight inches long, and at the end three or four 
inches in diameter. The handles of the mallets should be of good 
ash, from three to four feet long, tapering from the hand to the head 
of the mallet in order to admit of some spring. The hoops should be 
of strong iron wire, not more than eighteen inches wide at the 
bottom. The tico sticks are best to be small, not more than an inch 
in diameter, as they afford more amusement than when larger or 
square. 

TURNING POINT 




STARTING POINT 



CEOQUET. 



19 



Any handy carpenter, with a few directions, can turn the mallet- 
lieads and balls, and the rings are easily made from iron wire. The 
position of the rings and distance must depend on the size of the 
ground ; but from the starting-point to the first ring should never 
be less than six yards, and between each two rings the distance should 
be three yards. 

The Sticks and Hoops are placed in the position indicated in the 
annexed plan, which also shows the best directions which can be 
given to the balls, the dotted lines shov^^ing their course from the 
starting-point, and the solid line that towards it. 

Sometimes twelve hoops are used instead of ten, in which case 
they are ranged in four rows of three each. 

KULES FOR THE GAME OF CROQUET (MALLETS, BALLS, AND SIDES 
BEING CHOSEN). 

1. One of each side plays alternatel}^ 

2. The ball must be struck or pushed by the end of the mallet 
only. In starting, the balls to be placed not more than twelve inches 
from the post. 

3. The hoop must on no account ever be moved to afford the player 
Siuj convenience in playing. 

4. Going through a hoop gives a fresh move. 

5. To count the ball must be quite through the hoop, but going 
through one backwards counts for nothing. 

6. To count the hoops must be passed in proper succession. 

7. Playing out of turn loses the move. 

8. To get a roquet, the pla3^er must hit the ball he wishes to roquet 
with his own ; in so doing, he may play his ball with sufficient force 
to move the hit ball into another position. He then places his ball 
close on any side of the hit ball, taking care in so doing not to move 
the latter. 

9. The left foot is placed on the player's own ball, which he then 
hits with his mallet. 

10. When making the roquet, the player's ball must not move 
from its position ; if moved, the balls must be replaced for another 
trial, three trials being allowed. 

11. After the player has passed through a hoop, he is entitled to 
another stroke ; or after having roqued another ball. 

12. The player can only roquet the same ball once, until he again 
passes through the hoop. 

13. A ball half through a hoop is considered altogether through. 

14. If a player misses a hoop, he must return to the side of it 
that he played from either through or around the hoop, as most 
convenient. 

15. A ball must not be lifted from the ground if in the way of 
another player. If the ball of one player strike that of another 
which is not available for a roquet, both balls remain to wherever 
sent ; but if the ball be hit, and available for a roquet, it must be 
roqued. 



20 



CEOQFET. 



16. If the roqued ball be moved ever so little, the players re- 
nia;ining statioDary, it is a roquet. 

17. No player ean roquet or be roqued until he has been through 
the first hoop. 

18. A roquet entitles the player to roquet another ball, or make a 
move. 

19. The player cannot roquet the same ball twice in the same 
move. He can push it on by hitting it with his own, or, going 
through a hoop, can again roquet that ball. 

20. You can roquet friend or foe — helping your friend, or sending 
your foe to a dista,nt part of the ground. 

21. At any stage of the game the player may go where he pleases 
to roquet balls. 

22. When a ball is hit, it must be roqued. 

23. After hitting the lower stick, the ball may be placed in a 
favourable position, alongside the stick, to go throug'h the proper 
hoop ; but if moved, a roquet cannot be played until the ball has 
been through a hoop. 

24. When the player, having gone through all the hoops, hits the 
winning stick, he is out ; but it is not obligatory to hit it when first 
reached, the player may return as a rover," to roquet friend or foe. 

25. Going through a hoop does not give a ''rover" an additional 
move, as they have all been previously passed through ; he gets 
other moves by roqueting balls. 

26. He cannot roquet the same ball again imtil his turn comes 
round ; but he can roquet other balls. 

27. A ball that has not been through the first hoop cannot roquet ; 
but it can be roqued. 

28. If a ball that has not passed through the first hoop be sent 
behind the stick at the starting-point, it can be brought up to the 
starting-point and start afresh. 

29. On striking the second stick the player has the option of 
either leaving his ball to wherever it may have glided, or of 
bringing it back to the stick. 

30. When intending to roquet another ball, the player must 
strike his own bpdl with as much force as he pleases, in order to 
drive the ball about to be roqued into an unfavourable or favourable 
position. The player's ball must alw\ays be the one moved in roquing. 

31. If in roquing, the player's ball slips from under his foot when 
he strikes it, it must be brought back to the place he struck it from. 

32. If you hit a ball, and from it glance off through a hoop, jo\i 
must return to croquet the ball, and are not considered through the 
hoop. In like manner, if you croquet a ball, and glancing off from 
it hit the post, you have hit the ball, but are not considered to have 
hit the post. 

33. W^hen you croquet a ball, and from it hit a,nother, you must 
croquet the one hit first, and then the second ; but if an intermediate 
ball be nearer the player than either of them already hit, he must 
not attempt to croquet it until the others have been disposed of. 

34. At the upper post you may not take your ball up after hitting 



CEOQUET. 



21 



the post, but must proceed from the pLace to where the ball re- 
bounds, 

35. Those balls which roll out of the ground remain where they 
roll to, until their turn for play comes^ and then they are placed on 
the ground twice the length of the head of the mallet froin the edge. 

o'o. Players must identify their balls when called upon to do so^ 
and state also (if asked) which is their next hoop. 

37. If in croqueting 3'ou move your adversary's or partner's 
ball, though you do not hit your own, a fresh stroke may be taken. 

3S. It is not lawful to follow your ball when striking. If this 
happens, the striker shall take his ball up, and play again from the 
point he hit from. 

39. A person on each side may be selected to direct the play, but 
no ps.-istance to be given by holding bats or otherwise, 

-±0, To Avin, the winning stick must be hit by all on one side. 

There are several modifications of this now fashionable game ; but 
the above rules will be found to be the most conducive to the amuse- 
ment of the players. 



22 



LAWX BILLIARDS. 

This very pretty game is easily played, and will ac- 
commodate any number of players from ten to twenty. 

The apparatus consists, firstly, of a number of dif- 
ferently coloured wooden balls ; secondly, cues, in 
wooden handles about five feet long, with a ring at 
their extremity; thirdly, of an iron ring just large 
enough to permit the balls to pass through, and which 
revolves on a pivot. 

In playing the game, the sharp point of the ring is 
stuck into the ground, so as only to allow the ring to 
be visible. Care must be taken to ascerta,in that, when 
thus fixed, the ring can spin freely on the pivot. The 
players now withdraw to a spot about sixteen paces from 
the ring, and the first player pushes his ball with the 
cue, so as to make it pass through the ring. If he 
succeeds, he counts one towards his game, and gets an- 
other stroke. If he misses, he loses one, and the next 
player proceeds. When all have played at the ring, 
they are at liberty either to play at each other, or at 
the ring, and if they can "cannon," i.e., stike another 
player's ball and then pass through the ring, they 
count two. As the game proceeds it becomes very 
exciting, as the good player will often manage to drive 
^ his opponent into sucha position that the edge only of the 

^ ring is presented to him ; and whenever he himself is 

in such a case, he will contrive to give his ball a pecu- 
twist that strikes the ring aside as it touches, and enables the 
to pass through. 



KNOCK-'EM-DOWN. 

A SIMILAR game to Aunt Sally, but a simpler one, 
is made by scooping a hole in the ground, and 
placing in it an upright stick; on the top of it is 
placed a stone, or similar substance. The player 
then retires to a distance, and fiings at the stone 
with cudgels or balls, the latter being preferable. 
If the stone falls into the hole, the player only 
counts one towards game, but if he c^n strike it so 
as to make it fall outside the hole, he counts two. 
This is a capital game for the sea-side, and can be 
played upon the sands. 



23 



AUNT SALLY. 

This amusing game is of a very simple 



character, consisting essentially in throw- 
ing at a small object. Aunt Sally herself 
is composed of a head and bust cut out of 
a solid block of wood, and generally carved 
with negro features, and painted black. 
In tlie middle of her nose or between her 
lips a hole is bored, into which is stuck a 
short pipe. To break it is the object of the 
game. An iron rod serves to support the 
wooden figure at a proper elevation from the 
ground ; and when in gala costume, Aunt 
Sally is usually arrayed in a mob cap and 
a petticoat. The mode of playing the 
game is as follows. 




The iron rod is stuck into the ground, ^^"^ 

a pipe put into the old lady's mouth, and ^.y^^ muttmin SB 

a line drawn upon the ground at twelve, ^ ''^^^ ^ 
sixteen, or more paces. At this line the 

players stand, and each is furnished with three short cudgels about 
eighteen inches in length, which they hurl at Aunt Sally's head in 
hopes of hitting the pipe. The best plan is to throw the cudgels 
underhanded, giving them a rapid rotatory movement at the same 
time. Some persons insert an additional pipe into each ear, but this 
is an innovation, and leads to careless throwing. It is better to 
hang a sheet, net, or large cloth behind Aunt Sally, in order to catch 
the sticks, and save the trouble of continually fetching them from a 
distance. Within doors, the iron rod is furnished w^ith a loaded 
pedestal. 



24 




GYMNASTICS. 

Under the general name of Gymnastics, is included every vigorous 
exertion of the limbs, such as balancing, climbing, leaping, running, 
skating, swimming, vaulting, and walking. The use of gymnastic 
exercises is to unfold and strengthen the muscular system, by teach- 
ing the proper means of employing it to the utmost possible advan- 
tage, and the great utility of such recreations will be doubted only 
by those who are not aware that the health of the body depends on 
the fall and just exercise of the different members of it ; it is there- 
fore proper to vary the movements as much as possible, and it will 
be found that a few hours' practice every day, sometimes at one, 
sometimes at another kind of exercise, is sufficient, both for the 
health of the youthful gymnast and the proper display of his mus- 
cular system. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

It is most advisable to practise the gymnastic exercises either early 
in the morning, or else in the cool of the evening, and never imme- 
diately after meals. 

The pupils should not be permitted to carry knives, peg-tops, or 
any other toys in their pockets ; neither ought they to be allowed, 
while warm after practising, to lie down on the ground, be without 
their jackets or coats, sit in a draught, drink cold water, or wash 
themselves with it ; carelessness on these points frequently causing 
severe illness. 



GYMNASTICS. 



25 



A master or usher should superintend the sports, to keep the 
pupils from attempting feats beyond what their strength or practice 
will enable them to perform wath ease and safety. It is a good 
plan to divide the pupils into classes, according to their size and 
strength, and they should be made quite proficient in one exercise 
before they are allowed to practise another. 

The left hand and arm being generally somewhat weaker than the 
right, they should be gradually exercised until they become equally 
as strong. 

In all gymnastic performances the pupil should rather endeavour 
to strengthen the body, by exercises taken with moderation, than to 
exhaust and weaken it by violent and unnecessary displays of force 
and agility. 

The exercises should always be begun and finished gently, abrupt 
transitions being very dangerous. 

EXERCISES WITHOUT APPARATUS. 

COMMENCEMENT. 

At the beginning of gymnastics, there is no need for any appa- 
ratus whatever, and the beginner will find that several of the feats 
mentioned will tax his powers to no small degree, before he takes to 
ropes, horses, and poles. If he should feel himself fatigued while 
learning any feat, he should rest awhile, and when refreshed, either 
try again, or pass to another movement. 

DEESS. 

The best costume for a gymnast (if he uses any costume at all) is a 
light and loose flannel suit, with a belt round the waist, that can be 
buckled to suit the convenience of the wearer. Some gymnasts like 
their belts to be very wide, and tolerably stiff. The shoes should be 
quite light, made of soft leather, and without heels. Always keep a 
coat or wrapper at hand, and put it on while resting, for there is 
nothing that is more likely to give cold than to sit in the open air, or 
in a draught, while heated and fatigued. The gymnast will find 
himself much benefited by a sponging with tepid water immedi- 
ately after he has finished his exercises. If practicable, a shower- 
bath is even better. 

ECONOMY OP POWEE. 

The study of gymnastics does not only increase the bodily strength, 
but teaches the learner how to economize that power which he 
possesses. When an unskilful person is trying to perform any feat — 
such, for example, as raising himself by his hands — he makes a series 
of violent struggles, and flounders about with his legs. Now, every 
movement except that which is requisite for the performance is just 
a waste of so much strength, and only serves to exhaust, instead of 
assisting. A good gymnast performs all his feats quietly and easily, 
and, indeed, it is almost a general rule, that when some feat appears 



26 



GYMNASTICS. 



to be Especially easy, it is in reality exceedingly difficult. We now 
proceed to the first exercise. 

EXTEXSIOX. 

'No. 1. — Place the feet close together, and stand perfectly upright. 
Now stretch the hands out straight in front, at the level of the 
shoulders, and place the palms together. Separate the hands, and 
still keeping them at the same level, and the arms straight, try to 
make the backs of the hands meet behind you. Continue to practise 
this movement until the hands meet easily behind. It is very diffi- 
cult at first, but soon becomes easy, and is a splendid mode of 
opening the chest. Take care to keep the feet together, and the 
body upright. 

No. 2. — Stand as before, with hands in front, palms upwards. 
Close the hands, and bring the elbows sharply backwards, until the 
hands are level Vv^ith the sides. Send them forward again, as if 
you wanted to annihilate an enemy in front, and repeat until tired. 

No. 3. — Stand as before, but bring both fists to the shoulders. 
Send them upwards, as if the enemy were in the clouds, bring them 
down as if there were another on the ground, who must be crushed 
with the elbows. 

No. 4. — Stand firmly and uprightly, throwing the weight of the 
body rather on the front of the feet. Stretch out both hands, with 
fists tightly shut. Now bring them slowly over the head, and make 
them revolve in circles, first forward, and then backward. These 
exercises should be done very slowl}', and especial care be taken that 
the body is kept upright. These extension movements are intended 
to give ease and pliancy to the arms and their joints. The beginner 
must expect to find himself rather stifi" after he has been performing 
them, especially after No. 1 ; but the feeling will \evj soon wear off. 
and does not again make its appearance. 

TOE PRACTICE. 

Place the hands on the hips, and stand quite upright. Bise slowl}- 
on the toes as high as possible, and remain so as long as possible. 
Do this many times, for it strengthens the calves of the legs mightily. 
Kemember to keep the knees quite straight. After practising 
this movement for some time, vary it by jumping on the toes, 
keeping the knees stiff, body upright, and the heels well off the 
ground. 

KNEE PRACTICE. 

No. 1. — Stand as before, and kick your thighs with your heels, 
using each leg alternately, a-nd as rapidly as possible. 

No. 2. — Keep the body very upright, and strike the chest with 
each knee alternately. Be very careful not to stoop forward so as 
to meet the knee with the chest. This exercise is intended to loosen 
the knee-joints in another manner. 

No. 3. — Stand as in No. 1, and kick both thighs with both heels 
simultaneously. A slight spring from the toes is required to achieve 



GYMKASTIC3. 



27 



tins feat properly. If rightly performed, the feet should come to the 
ground on precisely the same spot. It looks very clumsy if the 
performer loses his balance, and keeps altering his place. It shows 
that his body is not perfectly upright. 

No. 4. — Place both feet together, the toes on a line, and the hands 
on the hips. Now kneel slowly until both knees rest on the 
ground. Rise again, without removing the hands from the hips 
or the toes from the line. Do it twenty times at least, without 
stopping. 

No. 5. — Now for the first hard o!ie. Stand as before, with the 
toe of one foot on the line (say the right foot) and the other foot off 
the ground. Keep the left foot from touching the ground, and kneel 
upon the right hiee. Else again without moving the toe from the 
line. This is rather difficult, and requires a nice balance of the body. 
Be careful to kneel very slowly, or otherwise the knee will come 
down with such a thump, that it may suffer no small inconvenience. 
Practise this with each foot alternately. 

No. 6. — Plenty of knee-practice. Here is another stiff one. 
Stand on the right foot, bend the left knee, and hold the left foot in 
the left hand. Now touch the ground with the left knee, and rise 
up again, without losing hold of the foot or suffering it to touch 
the ground. As in the former cases, the right toe should remain on 
a line, and never move from it. At first it will appear as if some 
resistless power were dragging the foot out of tlie hand, but after a 
while it becomes easy. Practise with both feet. 

No. 7. — As the preceding, only do not hold the foot, or suffer it to 
touch the ground. Take care not to lose the toe-line. 

No. 8. — Hardest of all, and very comical. Hands on hips, toes 
together on the line, body quite upright. Pise on the toes, and then 
sink gradually down, the knees projecting in front, until you sit on 
your heels, the w^hole weight of the body being supported on the 
toes only. Down you go on your nose, so pick yourself up, and 
persevere until you succeed. It is not so much the strength as the 
knack that is needed here. 

SITTINa PRACTICE. 

No. 1. — Stand upright, cross the feet, and sink gradually until you 
rest on the ground after the tailor fashion. Pise again, without 
moving the hands from the hips or the feet from their places. 

No. 2. — Tliis exercise is a capital test of the ability of the tailor 
who makes tlie gymnastic suit of clothes ; for if there should be a 
defect in the nether garments, they will fly asunder w^ith a report 
like a popgun. When the gymnast can manage this feat, he may 
congratulate himself on having made a considerable advance. 
Stand upright, extend both hands in front as a counterpoise, which 
is much needed, and hold out the left leg in front, at right angles 
with the bod}^ and knee quite straight. Now, still keeping the left leg- 
in its position, bend the right knee very slowly, and sit on the ground. 
P)eing seated, rise again, preserving the same attitude. Don't be in 
too great a hurrj' to take your seat, or you will come down Avith a 



28 



GYMNASTICS. 



run. This is an invaluable exercise, as it gives a power of raising 
the body when in a position from which, none but expert gymnasts 
could even stir. It is very difficult at first, for we feel a great repug- 
nance to let the body sink sufficiently low, and most who try it de- 
clare it to be impossible. However, after a few trials, they get over 
its difficulties, and manage it easily. 

Cutting Capers. — Stand with the toes together, and hands on 
hips. Spring upwards, and, as you rise in the air, cross your feet 
and return them to the same position. The toes must be kept 
pointed, or they will strike against each other as they attempt to 
cross. Do not heed the curious sensation as if the feet were held 
by bonds, but persevere. 

Foot to Hand. — Keep the body upright, hold out the right 
hand in a line with the shoulders, and kick it with the right foot. 
Practise both feet alternately, knees quite straight. 

The Compasses. — Easy enough, but useful. Spring into the 
air, and spread the feet as widely apart as possible, bringing them 
together again before touching the ground. 

The Handspring. — Stand on the toes, lower yourself as in knee 
practice No. 8. Throw yourself forward at full length, body stiff, 
and support yourself on the hands and tips of the toes. Take care 
of the nose. Then spring from the ground with the hands, and clap 
them together before they touch the ground again. To rise neatly 
from this position bring your feet between the hands with a sudden 
spring. It looks neat if you clap the hands as you bring up the 
feet. 

Touching Toes. — Hold the hands above the head, the palms in 
front and the thumbs just touching each other. Now, keeping the 
knees stiff and straight, bend over until the fingers rest on the toes. 
Continue to practise this until you can pick up a sixpence at each 
heel while the knees are kept straight. 

Over the Stick. — Take a stick of any kind, a poker or a walk- 
ing stick will do, and hold it with the hands three feet apart. Stoop 
down, and place your knuckles on the ground in front of your toes, 
still retaining hold of the stick. Then step over the stick without 
loosing your grasp or moving the knuckles from the ground. It is 
capital practice. 

Jumping through the Hands. — Hold both hands in front of 
the body, place the tips of the middle fingers together, and jump 
through them without separating the fingers. Take care not to 
knock the chin with the knees, for both those portions of anatomy 
have to approach each other very closely before the feet can pass 
through the arms. Don't attempt to perform this feat if your shoes 
have heels to them, or your thumbs will suffer. 



aY3INASTICS. 



2^ 



EXERCISES ON THE PARALLEL BARS. 

THE BAES AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION. 

The Parallel Bars are very simple in their structure. They are two 
wooden bars, about six or eight feet in length, four inches deep, and 
three wide, with their upper edges rounded off to prevent damage to 
the hands. They are placed about eighteen or twenty inches apart, 
and four feet high, and fixed according to pleasure. If they are in- 
tended to be permanent, they can be supported on four posts firmty 
driven into the ground. But if they are to be used under cover, 
they ought to be supported on a wooden framework. And it would 
be much more convenient for the frame to be nicely morticed toge- 
ther and held by screws, so that, in case of removal, it can be taken 
to pieces, and packed in a small compass. This mode of manufac- 
ture is just as easy as any other, and infinitely more convenient. 

We will now give the more important feats that are generally 
executed on the Parallel Bars, and leave the reader to invent as 
many more as he chooses. 



To GET ON THE Bars. — Stand between 
the bars, with hands closely pressed against 
the sides. Spring up, and placing a hand on 
each bar, remain suspended between them. 
This is called the first position. When fairly 
established, accustom yourself as much as pos- 
sible to the bars, and practise the wrists in 
their work. 




Swinging. — The next feat is called the swing. While suspended 
between the bars, v/ith the knees straight and the feet touching each 
other, begin to swing the body backwards and forwards. By de- 




grees increase the swing, until the body, when swinging backwards, 
is nearly upright in the air ; and when going forwards, the feet 
come nearly over the head. 

The Walk. — Pirst position, l^ow walk along the bars, using the 
hands as feet, and luheii you have reached the end, w^alk back again. 
It is not so easy as it seems, and the back walk tires the arms en- 
tirely. Keep the arms straight, and don't shrug your shoulders over 
your ears, or make irregular and hasty steps. 



30 



GYMNASTICS. 





The letter L. — First position. 
Eaise the legs to a level with the 
bars, making them form a right angle 
with the body, aud keeping the knees 
quite straight. In this attitude the 
gymnast turns his person into a re- 
presentation of the letter L. After 
doing this figure in the first position, stand between the bars, pass 
the hands under them, and. so grasp them from the outside. Then 
make the L again. This is a very useful figure to learn, and 
strengthens the loins greatly. 

Sitting on the Bah. — When in the first posi- 
tion, swing the legs forwards, and you will be able 
to seat yourself on either bar. A more powerful 
impetus wnll enable the gymnast to throw himself 
entirely over the bar and to come on the ground. 
The swing in either direction will be found suffi- 
cient to throw the gymnast over the bars without 
any apparent exertion, only he must be careful to 
keep his knees straight, and to clear the toes. 

The Janus. — Sit on the bars, as on a saddle, one leg over each 
bar, and the hands resting on the bars behind the legs. Now, dis- 
engage the feet, swing boldly through the bars, and seat yourself 
astride, with your face in just the opposite direction. Ee sure to 
swing high enough, or the shins will be sadly knocked against the 
bars. 



EisiNG AND Sinking. — First posi- 
tion. Sink gradually between the bars. 
Remain in that attitude for a short 
time, and then rise again. There are 
few exercises that open the chest more 
decidedly than this. 



There is rather a neat modification of this manoeuvre, called 
Kissing the Bars. — Sink between the bars, as in the preceding 
paragraph. Then kiss each bar successively behind the hands, and 
rise. It tries the w^rists somew^hat, as well as the chest. 

Bar-jumping. — First position : now proceed along the bars by a 
series of jumps with the hands. Practise this at first wHth bent 
knees to make the work easier, but do not rest content until you can 
jump along backwards and forwards with straight knees. 

The Arm Swing. — First position : 
suddenly bend the elbows, and rest 
with the fore-arms on the bars. 
Swing while in this position, and 
look out for elbows. When you 
have swung suflBiciently, hang sus- 





GY3I>7ASTICS. 



31 



pended between the bars, and then raise yourself on the hands 
again. Practise the drop upon the fore- arms and the rise as often 
as possible. 

StaxdiinG ON" THE Bars.— Now One of our former exerciser, 
(Sitting Practice No. 2) comes into play. Sit astride either bar, and 
secure a good balance of the body. Then place the sole of one foot 




on the bar, and hitch the other toe under it. X ow, by means of the 
toe, draw yourself to an upright position, and bring both feet to- 
gether. This is a very neat little exercise, and often entirely baffles 
those whose previous training has not fitted them for it. 



The Sausage. — Begin by kneeling 
on the bars, and placing both hands 
on them. Slide the hands forward 
xind the legs backward, hitching the 
toes over the bars, until the body 




hangs between them. Count ten and draw^ yourself up again. Don't 
be afraid. You will not snap across the middle, although you may 
feel as if you were about to do so every moment. 

The Sprixg. — Swing at one end of the bars, and, when in full 
course, launch 3'ourself forward, alighting on your hands in the 




grasshopper fashion. Yery great care must be taken of the accurac}^ 
of the balance, or down you go between the bars and come flat on 
your back on the ground. 

Touching the Bars. — First position : now, suddenly take the 
right hand from its bar, and touch the left bar in front of the body, 
instantly returning the hand to its ow^n bar. Look out, or you will 
drop through the bars. Do the same with the left hand. When 
you can do this easily, practise it with this modification — that you 
pass the hands hehind the body in toucliing the bars. 



32 



GYM]!^ASTICS. 



THE aiANT STRIDE, OR ELYING STEP. 

Many schools possess this admirable piece of apparatus, but in 
very few is it used properly, or its powers rightly shown. Generally 
the pupils are contented with taking hold of the ropes and running 
round the pole ; then they complain that the thing is useless. 
Whereas, the Giant Stride is a capital affair for a school, as it can 
accommodate from four to six players at a time, and lends itself to 
all their peculiarities. If they come out on a cold day, and want to 
be warmed, five minutes of Giant Stride will send a glow through 
their systems that will defy any British frost. If they want to jump 
over heights the Giant Stride will launch them over a ten-foot pole. 
If they wish to perform a series of graceful movements, the Giant 
Stride affords facilities little short of those given by the ice. 

STRUCTURE OF THE GIANT STRIDE. 

It is composed of an upright pole, tipped with a revolving cap, to 
which are fastened sundry ropes. The central pole is best made of a 
tree trunk, — if a rooted tree, and it can be left undisturbed, so much 
the better. Otherwise, it must be of thoroughly well-seasoned wood, 
strong and genuine. The lower end should be charred, in order to 
keep it from rotting, and the hole in which it is set should be quite 
six feet deep, and paved with stones. From the ground to the top 
of the pole should be about fourteen to fifteen feet. An iron cap is 
then placed on the top, traversing freely on a pivot, and carrying four 
rings, on which are fastened four ropes. To the end of each rope 
should be fastened cross bars of elm or ash about two feet in length. 
The apparatus being thus completed, the gymnasts are to hold the 
cross bars at arms' length, and run round the pole, bearing their 
weight on the ropes, so that their hands, heads, and feet are in the 
same line with the rope. Their feet will then gradually leave the 
ground, and only touch at intervals. After practising this from right 
to left, do the same from left to right, until it is as easy to run one 
way as the other. Take care not to lose your balance, or you will 
turn round, and grind yourselves on tlie ground very unpleasantly. 
This is but the beginning. The young gymnast should then run 
round, keeping himself constantly rotating, which may be done by^ 
the touch of the toe against the ground. Another accomplishment 
is to describe four circles in going round the pole, making the hands 
the centre of each circle, and the feet the circumference. A pole 
should also be erected, about a yard outside the range of the feet, 
and to this should be fixed a number of pegs, which will support a 
string passing from the central pole. Over this the gymnasts should 
leap, performing the movement merely by the centrifugal force, and 
not by the spring of the feet. About ten feet is considered a good 
height for a boy to attain, but a man can go higher. 

CLIMBING THE BOARD. 

Let a board be fixed at an angle against some object, such as a 
wall, and capable of alteration. Let it first be fixed at an angle of 



GYMNASTICS. 



33 



forty-five degrees or so, or even at a less angle than this if necessary. 
Then grasp the outside edges of the board with both hands, set the 
feet flat upon its centre, and try to mount by moving hands and feet 
alternately. Make very little steps both in ascending and descending, 
and in the latter instance, be specially careful to avoid a sudden slide 
down the board. As you improve, set the board more upright, until 
you can ascend it when it is quite perpendicular. It is also possible 
to ascend a pole in the same manner. Remember that the soles of 
the shoes must not be new and slippery, or neither pole nor board 
will be surmounted. 

CLIMBINa THE POLE. 

The ordinary mode of ascending a pole or a bare tree-trunk (in 
some places called swarming"), is by grasping it with the arms 
and legs, and alternately raising them to higher positions. Some 
gymnasts ascend the pole as stated in the preceding paragraph, and 
it certainly has the advantage in point of appearance. In de- 
scending the pole, be careful not to slide down too fast, or there will 
be excoriations of skin and damage to clothing. 

CLIMBING THE EOPE. 

This most useful exercise should be constantly practised. In every 
gynmasium there is at least one rope suspended, which ought to 
hang freely, and to be without knots. The easiest mode of ascending 
the rope is by grasping it as high as possible with the hands, and 
holding it also with the feet, one of which is under and the other 
pressing upon the rope. Thus the weight of the body rests consider- 
ably on that portion of the rope that is held by the feet. Then, as 
the hands are raised to take a higher hold, the feet sustain the body, 
and vice versa. But one who means to be a true gymnast despises 
the feet in rope- climbing, and pulls himself up solely by the alternate 
action of the hands. Be very careful never to descend by letting the 
rope slide through your hands, as it will assuredly inflict a painful 
wound, and may cut them to the bone. Always descend hand under 
hand. Many exercises may be performed on the rope, which will 
suggest themselves to the gymnast. For example, it afl'ords a de- 
cided contrast to the ordinary mode, if you grasp the rope with the 
hands, and then, inverting your position, throw the feet over the 
head, and hold the rope between them, keeping the knees straight. 
In this attitude ascend the rope, and descend again, taking care not 
to let the hands slip, or the strength of your skull will be unplea- 
santly tested. Again: Grasp the rope at a point about two feet 
from the ground, and retreat as far as you can, holding the rope in 
the hands. Now leap into the air, and swing as far as you can, 
launching yourself forward, and marking the spot where the toes 
touch the ground. Be careful to curl the body well upwards as you 
swing forwards, or you will assuredly scrape the ground just under 
the point where the rope is suspended, and the consequences will be 
disastrous to clothes and cuticle. 

D 



34 



GYMNASTICS. 



THE HOEIZONTAL BAR 

This is a very simple piece of apparatus, being merely a pole fixed 
horizontally at any height that may best suit the gymnast. There 
are several modes of fixing it, the most usual being to fasten each 
end to an upright post, which is furnished with mortices, so as to 
permit the height of the bar to be altered at pleasure. But there is 
one mode, which I especially affect, called the triangle, which can 
be used wherever there is a beam of sufficient height for its suspen- 
sion. It is made as follows: — Get a bar of any strong wood — deal 
will do, if it is uniform in grain and quite free from knots. Its 
diameter is about two inches and a half, and its length a little over 
three feet. Also, get a piece of well-made, but not very thick rope, 
about eighteen feet long, and securely fasten the ends of the rope to 
the ends of the pole. Fasten an iron "eye" into the centre of the 
rope, and you have the most important part of the triangle made. 
In fact, the rope and pole do form a triangle when suspended from 
the ''eye." Have a strong iron pulley firmly fixed into the beam, 
pass a stout rope through it, fasten one end of the rope to the " eye" 
of the triangle, and haul away at the other until you have suspended 
the pole at the proper height. Make fast the loose end, and then 
you have an apparatus that can be adapted to little boys of eight 
years old, or tall lads of eighteen years of age and six feet of stature. 
The proper height for the horizontal bar is when the raised hands 
cannot quite reach it, and a small jump is requisite before the 
gymnast can suspend himself by his hands. The triangle is useful, 
because it swings and twists about, and requires the gymnast to 
exert his power exactly in the proper direction, for if he does not 
so, away goes the bar out of his reach. Besides, it is good to be 
accustomed to maintain a safe hold on so changeful a support, and 
not to heed any amount of swing or spin. 

Having adjusted the triangle to the proper height, we begin by 



HANGING ON THE POLE. 

J ump up, and seize the pole with both hands, 
taking care to have the knuckles upwards, and 
the thumhs on the same side of the pole as the 
fingers. This is indispensable. Never grasp 
the horizontal bar as you would a broomstick, 
but merely hitch the fingers over the bar in a 
fish-hook style. Watch a monkey gambolling 
about his bars, and see how he holds them. The 
sloth, too, merely hooks his curved claws over 
the branches, and defies the gales to shake him 
off. So, imitate the sloth as well as you can, 
and curve your hand into a hook-like form. Let 
the body hang quite straight, but not stiffly so, 
the knees straight, and the toes rather pointed. 
After a while, practise hanging by each hand alternately, letting the 
other arm hang easily by the side. Don't twist round, or you will 




GYMNASTICS. 



35 



lose your hold. A few blisters may be expected at first, but tbey 
are caused almost entirely by unskilful management of the bar, and 
will soon get well again. 



The Walk. — Hang on the bar, and make 
alternate steps with the hands, so as to carry 
you from one end of the bar to the other. 
Do this first to one end of the bar, and 
then return by the same method. Be careful 
to make the movement equably, and don't 
kick the legs about. When you can execute 
this movement properly, place one hand at 
each side of the bar, and do the same 
thing. 



Breasting the Bae. — Hang on the bar 
Icnuclcles iiippermost, and slowly draw yourself 
up until the chest rests against the bar. Lower 
yourself as slowly, hang for a moment, and 
again draw yourself up. This should be prac- 
tised continually, as it is the foundation of 
most of the exercises, and strengthens the 
body and chest very considerably. Let the 
legs hang quite still while doing it, and do not 
be content until you can draw yourself up 
twelve successive times without feeling 
fatigue. 

SWINGING. 




This exercise cannot be practised on the triangle. Hang on the 
bar, and communicate a pendulum movement to the body, gradually 
increasing it until you feel yourself in danger of flying off. This 
soon happens at first, but after practice the body can be swung 
through the greatest part of a circle. When you are well accus- 




tomed to the swing, you will find that when the body has swung 
nearly as high as the pole, the hands bear but lightly on the bar. So, 
take them off altogether, and launch yourself boldly into the air. 
An inch or two will be sufficient at first, but many gymnasts can 
spring a foot or so from the pole. It has a bold and dashing effect. 

d2 



GYMNASTICS. 



THE GEEAT CIECLE. 

If the gymnast will only dare he will achieve. But it is a trying 
affair for the nerves, both of performer and spectators, and never 
fails of producing quite a sensation. Swing as in the preceding 
exercise, and when at the full swing backwards, with the body at its 
highest elevation, put on all the steam, and go completely round the 
Imr. There must be no half measures about this exercise, for every 
particle of strength will be wanted to drive the body round so large 
a circle as that which is formed by the feet as a circumference, and 
the hands on the bar as a centre. Of course this is also impracticable 
on the triangle. 

KICKIJ^G THE BAR. 

Hang by the hands, and then slowly 
gather up the body, drawing up the 
feet until they touch the bar. Both 
feet should be kept together, and the 
movement performed with steadiness.. 
One point to be observed in this exer- 
cise is, to throw the weight of the body 
and head as much behind the arms as- 
|i jl possible, so as to make them counter- 

balance the weight of the legs and feet. 
Do not attempt to jerk yourself up, or plunge about in the exertion, 
for you might strain yourself ])y so doing. Lower yourself slowly, and 
if you fail at the first few trials, do not be discouraged. The strength 
and knack will soon come. 

PASSING THEOUGH THE AEMS. 

Hang, on the bar, and curl yourself over as 
in Kicking the Bar. But instead of letting the 
feet touch the bar, pass them neatly under it, 
and continue to pass the feet on until they 
hang as in the engraving. Then, after hanging 
as long as possible, drop to the ground. After 
you have practised this well, instead of drop- 
ping to the ground, re-ascend, re-pass the feet, 
and then drop. This is a magnificent exercise 
for the shoulder-blades and the muscles of the 
back. By practice you will be able to let the 
feet hang nearly as low when the arms are thus 
twisted as when they are straight. 

EISING ON THE BAE. 

Draw yourself up to your breast, and then with a sudden impulse 
straighten the aiTus, so that you raise the body until the bar crosses 
it at the hips. It is better to throw yourself an inch from the bar 
while you make the spring, as then the friction of the bar against 
the body is no hindrance. This is a much more difficult feat than 





GYMNASTICS. 



37 




making the Great Circle," although it appears to be nothing at all. 
Practise it by rising with the right arm first, followed by the left, 
then vice versd, and lastly with both arms together. 

THE ROLL OVEE. 

After raising yourself as in the preceding exercise, change the 
position of the hands, so as to bring the finger-points on the same 
eide as the body, then lean forward, and roll fairly over the bar, 
dropping lightly to your feet. Take notice that in all cases the toes 
should be kept pointed ; and that when the gymnast comes to the 
.ground, he should do so on the tips of his toes, and not on the heel 
or the sole of the foot. 

SITTING ON THE BAE. 

No. 1. — Pass the feet under the bar. 
Then, instead of rolling over, stretch 
the feet quite straight into the air, so 
that you are in a perpendicular posi- 
tion, the heels in the air and the head 
pointing towards the ground. Rest a 
moment in this position, and then draw 
yourself upwards by the arms until the 
weight of the legs and feet brings you 
upon the bar seated. Take care not to 

overbalance yourself and come round the wrong way, a mistake 
which a beginner generally commits. 

No. 2.— Hang on the bar, and pass one foot, say the right, be- 
tween the hands, and hitch it over the bar at the knee. Let the left 
foot hang as low as it can. G-ive a good swing backwards, using the 
left leg as a weight to increase the power of the swing, and come up- 
right upon the bar. Now, bring the left leg over the bar, taking 
care not to overbalance yourself by so doing, and then you are 
seated. 

LEAVING THE BAR. 

There are two neat modes of getting off the bar when you are 
seated upon it. In the first method, you put your hands on the bar, 
with the finger-points forward, slide easily backward, keeping your 
knees bent, roll over backwards, and come on the feet neatly. The 
other plan resembles that adopted on the parallel bars. Place both 
hands on the bar, either on the right or left side, the finger-points 
turned away from the person. Then, with a slight spiing, bring the 
feet over the bar, and vault to the ground. Take care not to hitch 
the toes against the bar. 

BAR- JUMPING. 

Hang on the bar, and, by means of the arms, jump along the 
pole from one end to the other. This is a capital exercise, and should 
be performed with the knees quite straight. It tries the arms con- 
siderably at first, and the hands too. Practise it with the hands 
under the bar, and then with one hand at each side. 



38 



GYMNASTICS. 



CIRCLING THE BAE. 

Now for a stiff one. Hiing on the bar, and 
draw up the body and legs as if about to kick the 
bar. But, instead of kicking, or passing under 
it, raise the feet above the bar, continuing to 
draw yourself upwards until you have come quite 
round the bar. Do it slowly. 



LETTER L. 

Hang on the bar, and then raise the legs until they form a right 
angle with the body. Count fifty before you drop the feet. 

ROASTING-JACK. 

Put one knee over the bar, letting the other hang down, and hold 
on with the hands. Now swing backwards, and give yourself such 
an impetus that you come right round the bar, and come up again as 
before. You should be able to spin round the bar a dozen times 
without stopping. When you have practised this exercise backward, 
do the same thing forward, of course shifting the hands to the 
opposite side of the bar. In the forward roll it is better to sit nearly 
astride the bar. 

THE TRUSSED EOWL. 

This exercise is calculated to test the power of the grasp and the 
force of the joints, as it seems at first to have the effect of pulling 
every joint out of its place. Hang on the bar, draw up the feet, and 
put the insteps against the bar. Nov/ push your body right through 
the arms, as if you were trying to turn yourself inside out, and 
after remaining in this attitude as long as you conveniently can, 
return in the same manner. 

THE TRUE lover's KNOT. 

This is an exercise diiSicult to describe, and 
not very easy to do. Proceed as follows : 
grasp the bar; pass the left knee through 
the right arm, so as to let the knee rest in 
the elbow; pass the right knee over the 
instep of the left foot ; let go with the left 
band, and with it grasp the right foot. You 
will now be suspended by the right hand, and 
will be packed up in a remarkably small 
space. Take care of the right wrist, or you 
will spin round and twist off. By means of this exercise the wrist 
is very much strengthened, and the power of the grasp increased. 





GYMNASTICS. 



39 



THE L ROLL. 

Hang on the bar, forming the letter L. Now, bring the feet 
through the arms, as has been already mentioned, but keep the knees 
straight all the time. 

THE GEASSHOPPEE. 

Sit on the bar, and hold firmly with one 
hand on each side, points of fingers to the 
front. Let yourself gradually slide forwards, 
until the bar crosses the small of the back, 
and the elbows project upwards something 
like the legs of a grasshopper. Then draw 
yourself up again, and assume your sitting 
position on the pole. This is about the most 
difiicult exercise that has been mentioned, 
and tries the shoulders marvellously. But 
it should be learned, for it is very useful. 

STANDING ON THE BAE. 

Sit astride the bar, and place both hands on the bar, just in front. 
With a sudden spring, bring both feet upon the bar, the feet cross- 
ing each other at the heels ; at the same time raising the body to 
an upright position. It is not strength that is required in this exer- 
cise so much as a good balance and presence of mind. 

Another mode of standing on the bar is that which has already 
been mentioned in the Parallel Bars — viz., by placing one foot on 
the bar, hitching the other under it, and drawing up the body by 
the latter foot. 

HANGING BY THE LEGS. 

Sit on the bar ; then suddenly slide backwards 
and drop, catching yourself by your bent knees. 
Be careful to drop quite perpendicularly, and 
not to communicate any swing to the body, or 
the legs may be unhitched and the gymnast come 
down on his nose. When the young gymnast 
can hang by both legs easily, let him take one of 
them from the pole, and remain suspended by 
the other. He should not (as some teachers re- 
commend) catch the instep of the suspending 
foot with the knee of the other. There is quite 
sufficient force in the one knee to hold him up, 
and if he keep it tightly bent, there will not be the least danger of 
its unhooking. 

HANGING FSOM THE TRIANGLE. 

If you have nerve, here is something wherewith to astonish the 
natives. Sit on the bar, folding your arms. Then throw yourself 
a regular somersault backwards, as if you meant to throw yourself 
out of the triangle. But, as soon you come over, spread the legs, 





40 



GYMNASTICS. 



SO that the feet catch against the ropes. Let them shde down the 
ropes, and you will be held by your insteps at the angle formed by 
the junction of the ropes and the bar. I once saw a man perform this 
exercise in a triangle raised fifty feet in the air. It had a most 
startling effect, for, as he turned over, it seemed as if he must be 
inevitably dashed to pieces. 

HANGING BY THE FEET. 

We now proceed to a more ambitious per- 
formance — namely, that of suspending the 
body by the feet instead of the knees. Hitch 
both insteps over the pole, forcing the toes 
upwards as much as possible. Then loosen 
the hands from the pole, and let the body 
hang perpendicularly, without a jerk or a 
swing. To raise the body again is not so easy, 
but it can be done with a little practice. But 
the neatest way to leave the pole when in 
this attitude is by dropping to the ground on 
the hands, and so letting the feet come to the 
ground. 

KISSING THE BAR. 

Another diflficult exercise. Raise yourself on the bar, as before 
mentioned, until the bar crosses the waist. Sink gradually down, 
until you can touch the bar with your lips, and then raise yourself 
again. 

THE WOODEN HOESE. 

The series of horse exercises is extremely interesting. The per- 
formers always like the horse exercises, and bystanders seem to 
appreciate them even more than those on the horizontal bar. There 
is more scope for change of attitude than on the bar, and the legs 
are exercised as much as the arms ; in some of the feats much 
more so. 

CONSTRUCTION OF THE HORSE. 

The wooden horse is made of a great cylinder of wood, generally 
part of the trunk of a tree. It is mounted on four posts for legs, 
which are either driven firmly into the ground or fastened to a strong 
framework, so that no amount of force will push it over. A, saddle 
should be placed on the back, rather nearer one end than the other, 
which saddle should be made of stout rough leather, and nailed 
firmly in its place. Two pommels, made of wood, and covered, if 
desirable, with leather, should also be placed on the horse, and the 
hind pommel should be rather higher than the other. A shallow 
pit, of a few inches in depth, and some four feet square, should be 
dug in the ofi'-side of the horse, and filled with sawdust, on which 
the gymnast may alight after some of his lofty leaps, or into which 
he may chance to tumble, should he miss his mark. The paving on 
the near side should be of sand if practicable, or very fine gravel. 




GYMNASTICS. 



41 



Many gymnasts like to have a spring board from which to leap, and 
I rather recommend it. The board should be made of several nar- 
row boards, placed side by side, and firmly nailed to stronger pieces 
that lie across them. On the centre of the board should be fixed a 
piece of leather or carpejb, in order to afford the feet a firm hold in 
jumping. Each end of the board must be supported on wooden 
blocks, so as to give it space for springing. If the ground is hol- 
lowed under it, the same result will be attained. The height of the 
horse is regulated by that of the gymnast, the top of his nose form- 
ing an accurate criterion ; for the top of the saddle ought just to 
come up to that feature. 

Mounting the Horse.— Stand on the near side of 
the horse, placing one hand on each pommel. Then 
spring up, and bring the arms straight, so that the 
body is supported by the hands, while the legs rest 
lightly against the horse. After remaining for a few 
moments in this attitude, jump to the ground and up 
again immediately. Continue to practise this j umping, 
until it can be done easily, and remember always to 
come down on the toes. When you can jump up and 
down six or seven times successively, make a rather 
higher leap than usual, throw the right leg over the 
saddle, removing the right hand to let it pass, and 
then you are fairly mounted. Practise mounting both ways ; it's only 
a wooden horse, and does not feel insulted even if you do mount 
with your face to his tail. 




Dismounting. — To dismount properly and 
neatly, place the left hand on the fore-pommel, 
and the right hand on the saddle. Eaise your- 
self a little on the hands, and throw yourself 
off, coming on the ground nicely on your toes. 



The Knee Leap. — The following 
exercise will teach you how to es- 
cape the danger of a fall. Leap up 
with the knees on the saddle. Lean 
well forward, and, with a bold spring, 
clear both legs of the saddle, and 
come to the ground. There is not 
the least difficulty about this exercise, 
although, when it is first attempted, 
the legs feel as if they were se- 
cured to the horse. Only daring is required, and after doing it 
once, you will do it ever afterwards with perfect ease. 




42 



GYMNASTICS. 



Sustaining the Body. — Spring up as in the preliminary exer- 
cise, arms stiff and legs straight. Now throw yourself a little away 
from the horse, and bring yourself back again by the arms, without 
suffering the feet to touch the ground. This is a useful exercise to 
prepare oneself for a real horse that starts away as it is being 
mounted. 



Knee Practice. — Place both hands on the 
pommels, then leap up, and kneel with the 
right knee on the saddle. Leap down, up 
again, and come with the left kuee on the 
saddle. Afterwards kneel with both knees, 
taking care not to go too high, as you may 
chance to topple over ignominiously. 



Leg through Arms. — Hands on saddle as before. Now leap 
up well, and pass the right leg clean over the saddle between the 
arms. Make a slight spring from the arms, withdraw the leg and 
arms to the ground, immediately springing up again, and passing 
the left leg through the arms. Let the unused leg hang down easily, 
and keep the body upright. A stooping attitude has a most awkward 
effect . 

Swinging Practice. — Mount, but, 
instead of seating yourself on the saddle, 
do so behind it. Now place the left 
hand on the fore-pommel, and the right 
on the hinder, and swing the body com- 
pletely round, so as to seat yourself 
before the saddle, your face looking 
towards the hind pommel, and the feet 
not touching the ground at all. Then 
change hands, and swing round again, 
so as to bring yourself into the position from which you started. 
This is very useful exercise for developing the power of the arms. 





Kicking the Saddle. — Hands on pommels. 
Jump up, and bring the toes to the top of the 
saddle. Afterwards go a little higher, place the soles 
of the feet on the saddle, let go the pommels, and 
come up standing erect on the horse. 



GYMNASTICS. 



43 



Arm Practice. — Mount. Place the hands on the front pommel, 
and raise the body as high as you can. There is not the least danger 
of going too high. When you can thus suspend yourself for a short 
tune, try to do so while you swing your body gently. Lastly, raise 
yourself up as before, and slap the soles of your feet together over 
the top of the saddle. 

Cross Purposes,— Which cannot 
happen accidentally. Mount, and 
placing both hands on the front pom- 
mel, swing yourself as high in the 
air as possible, crossing your legs 
at the same time, and twisting the 
body, so as to seat yourself again 
on the saddle, but looking in the 
opposite direction. Having done so, 
swing up again, and resume your former position. A very decided 
swing is required here, or you will kick your shins with your own 
heels, which is one of the most irritating of occurrences. 

Through the Arms. — Hands on 
pommels. Take a good spring, and 
bring yourself completely over the 
saddle, passing through your arms as 
you do so. When your feet are well 
clear of the horse, give an impulsion 
with the arms, and alight on the ground 
neatly. This is a very effective exer- 
cise, and does not require so much 
strength as boldness. If you hesitate, 
down you go. 

SIDE-SADDLE. 

No. 1. — Stand with the right side to the saddle, hands on pommels. 
Spring up well, and throw the right leg into the saddle, lifting the 
left hand to let the leg pass, but retaining the hold of the other hand. 
Dismount, and instantly leap up again ; but mount with the left leg, 
removing the right hand. Persevere in this, and then proceed to 
the next, which is more difficult, and requires a neater balance. 

No. 2. — Hands on pommels. Leap 
up, and throw both feet completely 
over the body of the horse, and seat 
yourself behind the saddle. Down, 
and with a spring seat yourself in 
the same way on the front of the 
saddle. Take care not to put on too 
much steam, or you will slide over the 
horse and come down in the saw- 
dust, while, if you do not put on enough, you will come slipping 
backwards, doubled up in an absurd fashion. 






44 



GYMNASTICS. 




The Vault. — Hands on pommels, 
and throw both legs completely over 
the back of the horse. Do it at first 
with the aid of a short run, but after- 
wards with a simple jump. Practice 
the vault first with the feet to the 
right, and then to the left. Indeed, 
all these exercises should be so prac- 



tised, or they will not develope both sides of the body equally. 

Side-saddle Leap. — Spring up as in Side- Saddle No. 2, but let 
the legs pass completely over the horse, while the knees are kept 
straight, the body erect, and one hand on the back pommel. 



The Back Vault. — Sitbehindthe 
saddle, placing both hands on the 
hinder pommel. Raise the body on 
the hands, and with a powerful 
effort of the arms throw yourself 
clear off the horse. 



The Single-hand Leap. — Try to leap into the saddle while one 
hand only holds the pommels, and the other hangs quietly by the 
side. First right hand, and then left. 

The Someksault. — Take a short run, put both hands on the pom- 
mels, and fling yourself fairly over, not loosing your hold of the 
pommels until the feet have well passed the centre of the horse. 
Don't be afraid. If you only hold on well by the pommels, you 
must come down properly. There is no need for a very powerful 
swing, for the best gymnasts come over quite slowly. 

The Double Somersault. — This exercise 
I believe to be my own special invention, and 
I never saw any one who could do it except 
the inventor. But there is no reason why 
every one should not learn to do it, for it 
merely depends on the exact preservation of 
balance. Go over the horse, as in the pre- 
ceding paragraph, but do not loosen the hold 
of the hands when you come to the ground. 
Your attitude will be now rather curious, the 
back bent like a bow, the head falling back- 
w^ards, and the hands over the head. Now 
make as powerful a spring as the legs can 
achieve, and with the arms draw yourself over 
the horse again, thus performing exactly the reverse of the forward 
somersault. In rolling over the saddle, the head is bent forward, or 
the nose would get a sad scrape against the back of the horse. 




I 



SWIMMING. 



" The sprightly youth 
Speeds to the well-known pool, whose crystal depths 
A sandy bottom shows. Awhile he stands 
Gazing the inverted landscape, half afraid 
To meditate the blue profound below ; 
Then plunges headlong down the circling flood." " 

Thomson 

Swimming must ever hold a prominent place amongst those exer- 
cises which strengthen the muscular system, from its extremely in- 
vigorating and beneficial effects on the body. When, through the 
excessive heat of the atmosphere, listlessness and inactivity are 
produced, bathing is of the greatest importance, as it is the only 
means by which the body can be refreshed, and the energy of its 
actions maintained in their full vigour. It was deemed an essential 
part of education by the ancients, particularly by the Athenians, 
who held it so much in repute, that if a person could not swim, or 
read and swim, he was considered fit for nothing, and 

" The same Eoman arm 
That rose victorious o'er the conquered earth, 
First learned, while tender, to subdue the wave." 

Thomsoit. 



46 



SWIMMING. 



Of course I presume that all boys are already convinced of the 
advantages to be derived from a knowledge of the art, and have made 
up their minds to attain it. Therefore I pass over all preliminary 
observations, and place the learner at the brink of the new element 
now to be first tried. 

BY THE WATER. 

"We will suppose that the learner has arrived at the bank of the 
river, pond, or lake w^hich he has selected for the scene of his first 
essay. Of enclosed baths I say nothing, because teachers are almost 
invariably attached to them ; and, in such a case, a teacher is far 
superior to any book whatever, and should be employed in prefer- 
ence. The bather ought to be provided with two tolerably large 
towels ; one, if possible, of a rough and rasping character, and the 
other soft and absorbent in its nature. These articles are necessary 
for all. And it is as well to remark that vast discomfort may arise 
from the omission of a very small object, or the substitution of one 
article for another — such as a button-hook for a boot-hook, for 
example. A comb with large teeth is useful, for the water gives to 
hair much of a fretful-porcupine aspect, and an uncomfortable feeling 
under a hat ; for both of which evils the large comb is an excellent 
temporary remedy. Small combs are often worse than the evils that 
they were meant to remedy, for they put the user to sad torture, by 
weaving the wetted hair into elf-locks, and then dragging at them 
painfully. 

PREPAEATIOXS. 

The first precaution that ought to be taken by a bather, on arriv- 
ing at a spot with which he is not w^ell acquainted, is, to sound the 
depth of the water, and the nature of the bottom. The former of 
these precautions is really of more importance than may be ima- 
gined: owing to the refractive powers of water, the depth appears 
to the eye to be much less than really is the case ; and it often 
happens that a supposed depth of four feet turns out to be upwards 
of six. This may be shown by the well-knowm experiment of placing 
a shilhng in a basin, and gradually filling it with water ; when 
viewed obliquely, the shilling seems to rise in proportion to the 
amount of water in the basin, and so gives a wTong impression of 
the depth to which it is immersed. The nature of the bottom is of 
much importance to one who cannot swim. For the river-bed is 
often composed of sharp stones that cut the feet, or strewed with 
sunken branches that thrust their jagged points upwards, as if on 
purpose to wound an unwary bather, and give him a chance of severe 
injury. Few accidents are more dangerous than those caused by 
sharp splinters entering the foot, and remaining there. Other waters, 
and especipvlly those of ponds and all still waters, deposit a depth of 
mud that is always most unpleasant to the bather, and sometimes 
deep enough to be dangerous. And soft as is the mud, and in itself 
innocuous as hasty pudding, it often contains substances that 
treacherously pierce or cut the sinking foot. Thorn-branches are 
frequently found in muddy waters, and the thorns are so brittle that, 



SWIMMING. 



47 



after piercing the foot, they snap from the branch, and remain im- 
bedded in the flesh. Animal as well as vegetable substances lurk 
in the mud, to the damage of bathers. Among these the mussel 
is most common ; and as it has a habit of remaining with its sharp 
edges uppermost, it cuts a bare foot as readily as if it had been a 
knife-blade. Even mud, however, has its useful properties ; it is 
frequently used instead of soap, and with success. Certainly a mud- 
covered person does not present a very elegant appearance ; but as 
people generally bathe away from mixed society, the temporary 
disfigurement matters but little. The most singular effect is pro- 
duced when a party of good swimmers cover themselves with mud, 
and then simultaneously leap into the river ; they enter brown, and 
come out white. It looks really as if a party of Hindoos were sud- 
denly transformed into Europeans. 

Weeds are horrible nuisances to bathers, and must be avoided. 
The water-lily must rank among weeds," for it is so considered by 
bathers, and is a very dangerous vegetable ; its long, flexible flower- 
stalks tie themselves round the limbs like lassoes, and the leaf-stalks 
are apt to hitch themselves on an arm or a leg with unpleasant firm- 
ness. Should the bather unfortunately get among weeds, the best 
way of extricating himself is by creeping," which mode of swim- 
ming will be hereafter spoken of. He must also be careful not to 
struggle ; but if he finds himself arrested by a weed, to lie quietly 
in the water, keeping himself afloat with one hand, while with the 
other he unwinds the weed. 

There is yet one other important duty to be performed. The 
bather must ascertain that the river-bed contains no holes, or sudden 
depressions. A hole only a foot deep and two feet wide is quite enough 
to drown a person who cannot swim, and does not possess presence 
of mind. Indeed, I once saw a young man nearly drowned in three 
feet of water. He lost his footing, and falling backwards, was car- 
ried along by the stream, beating the water violently with his hands, 
and screaming for help. And if he had not been assisted, he probably 
might have perished in water hardly deep enough to drown a child 
of six years old. 

ENTERING THE WATER. 

The bather, being now ready for his bath, sometimes begins to 
feel rather nervous about the water. So he cautiously puts the tip 
of his toe into the water, feels it cold, begins to shiver, — and, per- 
haps, resumes his clothes. Now the fact being that he has to im- 
merse himself totally, it is evident that the sooner he does so the better. 
So he should let himself quickly into the water, Iceeping his face to- 
wards thehanJc, and suddenly submerge himself entirely. Byso doing he 
saves himself from a succession of mental struggles, and occasionally 
from a headache ; which latter evil seizes upon those who do not dip 
their heads at the same time with the rest of their person. Some 
writers (whether practical bathers is doubtful) recommend that the 
bather should wade until the water deepens to his breast, and then 
submerge himself, or ducJc, as this operation is familiarly t^ermed. 



48 



SWIMMING. 



But we recommend most strongly, that if the water be only a foot 
or eighteen inches deep, the bather should instantly cover himself 
with water, even if lying at full length be necessary. If he likes to 
splash the water over his head before entering, he can do so, and 
the wet sensation may give courage. When a person unaccustomed 
to the water wades from shallow to deep water, he sustains a sepa- 
rate pang for every half inch of depth. By the time that the water 
reaches the hips he begins to gasp, and when the chilly liquid rises 
as high as the pit of the stomach, scientifically called the epigas- 
trium," his gasps become so spasmodic that he can hardly breathe. 
Now one good "duck," that occupies about one second of time, 
prevents all this gasping and gaping. The face should be turned 
towards the bank, because the novice is apt to feel giddy when he 
takes his head out of the water, and to stagger forwards. 

TEMPERATUKE OF THE WATER. 

The temperature of the water is exceedingly variable, being 
afiected by so many causes. Shallow water, for example, is always 
much warmer than deep ; and in deep water the temperature of the 
surface is several degrees higher than that of the water at the depth 
of a few feet. Indeed, if a swimmer, after diving, rises through 
the water with his hands held above his head, it often happens that 
when he comes near the surface, the water round his hands will be 
quite warm, while that about his feet is very cold. Shady spots are 
always colder than those exposed to the sun, especially if the water 
be still. But the most sudden alteration of temperature is found 
where springs pour themselves into the water from sources below the 
surface ; these are often of an icy coldness, and in some cases cause 
cramp. 

TEMPERATURE OF THE BATHER. 

A warning is generally given to bathers, never to enter the water 
while they are hot, but to wait by the river- side until they are cool, 
and then to enter. And sundry examples are mentioned of imprudent 
personages who bathed while heated, and died from the effects of 
their imprudence. But the fact is, that these shocking examples " 
suffered fatally, not because they were hot, but because they were 
tired, and their wearied frames could not resist the shock of cold 
water. There is no greater mistake than to wait on the river-bank 
until the warm glow of exercise has subsided. So that the bather 
is not fatigued, he may go into the water as hot as he likes, and will 
find that the healthy action of the skin repels the chilling effects of 
the colder medium with which it is surrounded. Similarly in winter 
time ; if a person with cold hands washes them in cold water, he 
suffers from it ; but if his hands are thoroughly warm, an immersion 
in water at 33° does not hurt them ; and even though the ice may 
be floating on the surface, his hands leave the water all in a glow 
with heat. 

A PIECE OF ADVICE. 
NEVER USE CORKS OR BLADDERS. 



SWIMMING. 



49 



TIME FOR BATHING. 

It is not good for any one to bathe immediately after a meal. 
Perhaps the best time for a healthy person is in the early morning. 
A morniijg plunge has a wonderful effect on the spirits, and sends 
home the bather with a mighty appetite for breakfast. Many- 
people find themselves much benefited by an evening bath, and I 
certainly recommend it. A swim by moonlight is one of the 
pleasantest recreations that can be imagined ; and besides, disposes 
the bather to sound and refreshing sleep. Still it is injurious to bathe 
over frequentl}^, or to remain in the water over long, and such ex- 
cesses must be carefully avoided. 

MAKING A STAET. 

When the reader has sufficiently accustomed himself to the water, 
he should set himself to learn the A, B, C of the swimming art — 
namely, the stroke by which the body is propelled, without sinking 
the head below the surface. For this purpose he should walk slowly 
backwards into the deeper part of the water, until he is immersed at 
least up to his shoulders, taking care to keep his face always towards 
the bank. If he feels nervous about going out so far, he will find 
himself aided by holding a rope, one end of which is fastened to a 
tree trunk, or a stake firmly driven into the ground. Now, if he 
rises on his toes, and makes a few gentle springs upwards, he will 
find that the waiter supports nearl}^ his entire weight, and that an 
occasional touch of the toes on the bed of the river will be sufficient 
to keep him suspended between earth and water. This little exercise 
will give great confidence in the sustaining power of the water, and 
will give confidence for the next step, which will be narrated in the 
succeeding paragraph. 

LEARNING THE STROKE. 

The stroke used in ordinary swimming is twofold, the work being 
divided between the arms and legs. For the leg- stroke there is no 
better model than a frog, whose action in swimming should be copied 
as accurately as possible. But as the frog does not make use of his 
arms in swimming-, but tucks them away under his throat, the arm- 
stroke must be gained from another source. And this is the way to 
make it. You stretch out your arms at full length before you, the 
hands being placed flat upon the surface of the water, palms down- 
wards and the thumbs just touching each other. Now draw a full 
breath, place your head as far back as possible, and lean forwards 
towards the bank. The impulse thus given will take your feet from 
the ground ; and were you not to move your arms, you would sink 
just below the surface. But as you feel your feet lift, you should 
deliberately spread your arms, so as to describe as much of a circle 
as possible, pressing them shghtly downwards, and again let your 
feet sink to the bottom. You v/ill then find that you have gained 
several inches of space towards the bank. This action should be 
repeated over and over again, until you can go through the move- 
ment with deliberation. It is a good plan to try to reach the bank 

E 



50 



SWIMMING-. 



by a succession of these little efforts. The whole auction should be 
slow, and without any appearance of flurry. It is almost impossible 
to make the stroke too slow — quite impossible for a learner. 

THE LEG-STEOKE. 

ISTow for our frog. 
Catch a good large frog, 
and put him into some 
water, where he may 
have plenty of space to 
s'vYim, and where he can 
be watched. A pail or 
basin will not afford suf- 
ficient room, and in a 
river Mr. Frog speedily gets out of sight. An ordinary bath is a 
good swimming school, with the frog for teacher. It will be seen that 
the legs a,re struck or kicked out simultaneously, and the feet kept 
widely separated from each other ; the legs having reached their full 
stretch, the feet are drawn together firmly and slowly, the legs still 
extended as much as possible, and the toes kept pointed. The power 
and efficacy of the stroke does not depend so much upon the "kick, " 
as on the force with which the legs are drawn together. The me- 
chanical action is simply that of the wedge, for the legs enclose a 
wedge of water, and when they are drawn together, the body is 
impelled forwards. The attitude of the body and limbs is shown in 
the accompanying cut. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR ATTITUDE, ETC. 

When a person becomes a good swimmer, he does not need to 
trouble himself about rules, and gradually dispenses with them. But 
a learner finds himself much helped by a few simple rules which are 
easily carried in the head, and easily applied. The following are 
given for this purpose: — 1. Slow and steady. 2. Back of head on 
shoulders. 3. Spine well hollowed. 4. Take breath between the 
strokes. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE BREATH. 

The last rule in the preceding paragraph tells the learner to take 
breadth between the strokes. The reason of this injunction is, that a 
beginner is apt to drav^ his breath just when he strikes out. Now, 
whenever he does so, he is tolerably certain to get his mouth full of 
the water which ripples against the chest and chin, and then to choke 
himself, and then to collapse and sink. Therefore it should always 
be a rule, that as the legs strike, the lungs should expire the air that 
is in them, and so drive away the water that might find entrance. 
Few things disconcert a learner more than getting his mouth full of 
water, more especially if the water be salt. But if in addition he 
happens to be drawing a breath at the same time, he is sure to be 
sadly affected with a clicking cough for some time afterwards. How- 
ever, a slow and deliberate manner of swimming soon gets the better 
of these little difficulties. 




SWIMMING. 



51 



PLUNGING. 

Being now able to support your- 
self for some little time, you must 
not be content with entering the 
water after the very mild manner 
that is only appropriate to those 
who cannot swim. You must now 
learn to throw a little spirit into 
the proceedings, and enter the 
water with a dash. Some people 
always jump into the water feet 
foremost ; but this is a very clumsy 
proceeding, and, moreover, is apt 
to entail a sharp blow against the 
chin when it strikes the surface of the water. The only mode of 
entering which a dashing swimmer will allow himself to use, is the 
head-foremost plunge, commonly called a "header." This is achieved 
by taking a smart run to the bank, and boldly launching the whole 
body forward, the hands joined over the head, so as to enter the 
water at an angle of forty- five degrees or so, the head downwards 
and the heels in the air. This proceeding is rather a nervous one at 
first, because the leaper cannot get rid of the notion that he is 
throwing himself headlong on some hard substance which will dash 
him to pieces. So it is better to begin by assuming the attitude shown 
in the accompanying cut, and to tumble forwards in the fashion re- 
presented. By so doing, the bather gains two advantages. In the 
first place, he finds that, though his head be downwards, his skull 
remains still unfractured ; and, in the second place, he learns to 
conquer the nervous sensation that is felt by beginners when they 
find themselves for the first time deep below the surface, and the 
natural position of the body reversed. 

THE HEADER." 

The genuine "header" may be taken either from the bank with 
a run, or from a height. It is better to learn both ways, and indeed 
every way by which the human body can be transferred from the 
land to the water. To take a proper ' ' header, " the hands should be 
joined over the head, so as to present a wedge by which the water 
is separated for the passage of the head through its substance. If 
this precaution be not taken, the top of the head gets a terrible blow 
from the water. The back should be well hollowed, the entire body 
as stiS" as a poker, the legs stretched out firmly, both feet pressed 
tightly together, and the toes pointed so as to offer as little resistance 
as possible to the water. The test of a perfect "header" is, that 
it raises no splash, and the body seems to slide into the water like 
an otter, merely leaving a series of concentric rings, and little 
bubbling spots in their centre, to mark the place where the diver 
vanished. 

E 2 




52 



SWIMMING. 



LEAPIXG FEOM A HEIGHT. 

This is a most useful accomplishment, and should be sedulously 
practised. Of course the water must be of sufficient depth to prevent 
any risk of the diver hurting himself against the bottom. The pro- 
gress should be quite gradual, until the diver is able to leap with 
perfect confidence from a height of twenty feet or more. Very great 
care must be taken that the body and limbs are properly held, for 
the least deviation inflicts a blow on the offending member, that 
leaves a scarlet mark behind as a memorial of its clumsiness. There 
is need for making this observation, because when a novice leaps 
head-foremost from a height, a strange sensation comes over, or 
rather inside him, precisely as if he left the whole of his internal 
anatomy adherent to the spot from whence he jumped; and so he 
is apt to discompose the proper attitude of body. However, when 
he rises to the surface of the water, he finds that nothing has been 
left behind, except, perhaps, a little presence of mind, and he soon 
learns to leap from almost any height without feeling at all discon- 
certed. So accurately can this be done, that it is a well-known 
practice in some places to mount a tree or other elevated spot, throw 
a wooden hoop into the water, and dive through it without touching 
the sides. Experto crede. 

LEAPING INTO SHALLOW WATER. 

There are cases where a swimmer is obliged to enter the water 
where it is not of sufficient depth to permit the ordinary plunge. 
Under such circumstances, the best way is to make a run forward, 
and to throw the body nearly, but not quite, horizontally into the 
water, and to curve the back as far as possible when the head has 
fairly touched the surface. In this manner an expert leaper will 
boldly throw himself into water only three feet or so in depth. 
Indeed, there are some who can manage this feat so adroitly, that 
their head actually emerges as their feet are submerged. Great 
care must be taken to hold the body firmly braced, as the sudden 
change of curve in the spine is apt to cause a strain that might lead 
to dangerous results. I have seen a strong man who attempted this 
feat unadvisedly, so strain himself that he had to be lifted out of 
the water, and was unable to stand for some time. The chief use of 
this mode of plunging is, when there is a necessity for reaching any 
object in a short time, as, for example, in a race, or when a fellow- 
creature needs rescue. 

DIVING. 

We now come to a very pleasant department of this art — namely, 
that of diving. There are few divers who do not feel a kind of 
exultation in their power over the element, and in their ability to 
move under the surface of a stream with ease and pleasure. Here, 
again, the chief qualification is that of courage and presence of mind, 
and one who possesses the latter will become an expert diver. Two 
points are to be considered when learning to dive — the eyes and the 
lungs. The eyes should never be closed under water, and the 



SWIMMING. 



bather should accustom himself to use his eyes as freely in water as 
in air. Some wiseacres advise the diver always to enter the water 
with his eyes open, as if he tries to open them under water he will 
not be able to do so, on account of the pressu7x upon the eyelids. 
This statement, made at first by a person entirely ignorant of the 
art, has been copied from one writer to another, and we find it even 
in works high in the estimation of the public. It is as easy to open 
and shut the eyes while beneath the surface as above it, as any 
one may try who chooses. The breath is of as great importance as 
the sight ; for in cases of danger the issues of life and death often 
hang on a few seconds. At first a diver can only remain under water 
for a very short time, but by practice he learns to retain his breath 
for a length of time that astonishes those who are not accustomed 
to see diving much practised. 

There is a plan, which is of infinite service, when the diver wishes 
to remain under water for a long time, and which will enable him to 
vanquish any one who is not acquainted with it. Take a full breath, 
and then expel every particle of air from the lungs. Repeat this 
several times, each time filling the lungs as full as possible, and 
each time emptying them as much as possible. This plan of pro- 
ceeding drives the impure air from the little lung- cells, where it 
generally remains imdisturbed, and regenerates the blood so fully, 
that a fresh breath is not needed. I have timed myself with 
an accurate seconds watch, and held my breath for a minute and a 
half without any difi&culty. For practising diving after objects at 
the bottom, a piece of thick white china is a capital mark, as it can 
be seen for some distance, and does not crush in the hand like the 
egg that is so often recommended. 

EEACHING- THE SURFACE. 

When the diver has achieved his object, he should rise to the sur- 
face of the water without delay. If he only remains still, he will 
rise like a cork ; but it is better to spare the lungs, and reach the air 
as soon as possible. The best way of so doing is by striking vio- 
lently downwards with the feet, as if making a series of leaps ; at 
the same time raising the hands above the head, and as it were 
'pulling the body upwards. When this action is properly performed, 
the diver shoots out of the water as high or higher than his waist. 
We used to term this action Jack in the box." 

THE STEAMER." 

While lying on the back, rapidly beat the water by alternate blows 
of the feet, taking care to keep them well pointed. If this is pro- 
perly done, the swimmer drives up a shower of spray like that from 
the paddle-wheels of a steamboat, and at the same time propels himself 
through the water at some speed. We have known several swimmers 
who could race for a short distance in this manner, and beat one who 
swam in the ordinary fashion. 



54 



SWIMMING. 



SWIMMING- ON THE BACK. 

Many learners can ma*- 
nage to swim on their back 
before they can achieve the 
nsual method. In truth, it 
is the easiest mode of sup- 
porting the body ; as, if the 
head is only thrown well 
back, and the spine hol- 
lowed, the greatest novice 
may keep himself from sinking. This, by the way, is a maxim that 
ought to be inculcated on every one who ventures on the water and 
does not know how to swim. Many lives would have been saved, 
had the victims only remained quiet in the water, with their heads 
thrown back, instead of struggling, and so sinking themselves. It 
is possible to swim at a smart pace by this method. The hands 
may be used or not, at the discretion of the swimmer. By permit- 
ting the body to sink gradually, a position nearly -upright will be 
attained. There will be no danger of sinking, though the water 
will generally rise as high as the lips at each respiration. 

PLOATING. 

This is not very easy in fresh water, although it can be done with- 
out difficulty in the sea. Lie on the back, hollow the spine as much 




as possible, throw the head well back, and stretch the arms above 
the head to their extremest limits. By so doing, the centre of gravity 
is thrown nearer the head, and the body may be kept for any time 
so near the surface, that the toes show themselves. 



This is useful whenever 
the swimmer desires to re- 
main in the same spot and 
to keep his head well above 
the surface of the water. 
The process is perfectly 
simple, being nothing more 
or less than assuming a per- 
pendicular attitude, and let- 
ting the hands remain at 
rest while the feet perform 
the ordinary stroke with con- 
siderable rapidity. 




TREADING 




SWIMMING. 



55 



SWIMMma LIKE A DOG. 

No Special advice is required for this feat, as the name explains 
itself. It is useful as affording a means of changing the action of 




the limbs during a long swim. Great relief is given by frequently 
changing the mode of swimming, and the danger of cramp much 
decreased. 

THE CEAMP. 

But, in case of a sudden seizure, the best mode of proceeding is to 
get to shore as soon as possible. Even if both legs are disabled, the 
arms will suffice to paddle ashore ; and if the arms are seized, the 
patient should lie on his back, and get to land by striking with his 
legs. There is not so much danger in the cramp as is supposed, un- 
less its victim is apt to lose his presence of mind. I have several 
times been caught by it while in deep water, and never suffered any 
inconvenience, except from the pain at the time. 

SWIMMING UNDER DIFFICULTIES. 

It is always better to prepare for such emergencies by practising 
them beforehand. Every swimmer should learn to swim easily while 
one arm is held entirely out of the water, or even when they are both 
held aloffc. We were accustomed to keep an old heavy suit of clothes, 
consisting of a great pea-jacket and thick woollen trousers. Ac- 
coutred in this paraphernalia, we accustomed ourselves to jump into 
the water, and to swim for some time in spite of the heavy, dragging 
weight. Also, we used to dive after heavy weights, and bring them 
ashore. Also, to swim across the river, with a boy sitting jockey 
fashion on our backs. Also, to practise the rescue of a struggling 
person. In this case, the object of the one party was to enact as 
accurately as possible the role of a drowning man, and to drag under 
water the rescuer ; while that of the other was to catch the drowning 
man and get him to shore. Many similar exercises will suggest 
themselves to the bather as he improves in swimming. 

THE WASHING-TUB. 

The swimmer who makes the washing-tub" does so in the fol- 
lowing manner : — While lying on his back, he gathers his knees as 
near his chin as possible, and being thus packed into a compact form, 
he rotates rapidly by the action of the hands. The secret of this 
feat is simply to work the hands with a downward pressure. If this 



56 



SWIMMIKG-. 



precaution is not taken, the "washing-tub" is sure to sink in the 
course of its first gyration. 

CREEPING. 

This is a capital mode of avoiding entaDgleraent by weeds, should 
the bather find himself suddenly among them. In creeping," the 
swimmer lies as fiat as he can, keeping his whole body and limbs as 
near the surface as possible. With the feet he gives a succession of 
very short strokes, not more than an inch or two in length, while 
with his hollowed hands he pulls the water towards him. The 
worst weeds, even the water-lilies, lose their terrors to a good 

creeper." 

HAND OVEIL HAND. 

In this mode of swimming each hand is successively raised out of 
the water, and thrown forward to its full extent with, a kind of cir- 
cular sweep. It then grasps the water, and passing downwards 
towards the hips, is succeeded by the other hand, v/hich performs 
a similar movement. The legs also urge the body forward, as the 
arms leave the water. During these movements the swimmer seems 
to be hurled forward by the swing of the arms, and gets over a good 
deal of water. But it is too fatiguing a process to be adopted for 
any length of time. It is very useful, though, as a relief from the 
ordinary mode. 

SEA-BATHING. 

Those who have been exclusively accustomed to fresh-water 
swimming, often find themselves rather discomposed when they come 
to the sea. For their benefit I append a few remarks. 

MANAGING THE WAVES. 

During, or after a breeze, the force of waves is often sufficient to 
take a man fairly ofl his feet, and throw him at full length into the 
water. Then, before he can recover his footing, he is caught by 
another w^ave, and again rolled over. Several instances have been 
known where a person has thus been drowned in shallow water. 
Now there is but little difficulty in getting the better of a wave, if 
one only knows how to do it. Carefully watch the advancing wave, 
and if it does not reach above the level of the eyes, leap upward as 
it begins to lift. Thus the wave will pass under the feet, and go on 
its way harmless. If, on the contrary, it should come on with a 
great roar and rush, like a mountain of water, stoop down, leaning 
forwards to the wave, and let it pass over. 

These directions are for one who cannot swim. For those who can 
do so, a difi^erent mode of proceeding will be required. 

A swimmer ought not, unless accompanied by a boat, to venture 
out to sea while the tide is running out, for a swim against tide is 
about as disheartening an occupation as can well be imagined. I 
have once been ibrced to swim for a long distance against the tide, 
having unwittingly been carried out to sea while listlessly floating on 



SWIMMING. 



57 



my back ; and I never wish to do it again. One seems to make no 
progress whatever ; and the marks on shore by which one mea.sures 
the distance seem to remain absolutely stationary, while there is the 
knowledge that a pause of only a minute for rest will lose the labour 
of very many minutes' hard swimming. But at slack water, or when 
the tide is coming in, he may safely go out to some distance, even 
though the waves be rough and lofty. To get out to sea, he should 
keep a look-out for a big wave, watch it break on the shore, and, as 
it returns to the sea, throw himself upon it, and be carried on its 
top. His next proceedings must be varied by the size of the waves, 
the smaller being surmounted, and the very large ones dived through. 
It must be remembered that the waves nearest the shore are the most 
awkward, as they break against the bottom, and roll very unevenly 
in consequence. For returning to shore, the proper plan is, to 
watch the waves, and as they roll shorewards to keep on their crests. 
When the feet touch the ground, the bather should immediately run 
well out of reach of the waves, so as to escape the force of the 
return w^ave. 

THE TIDES. 

Always make sure of the " set" of the tides, and when swimming 
seawards shape the course accordingly. Tide-tables are sold at all 
seaside book-shops, and half an hour's study of the tables will make 
one master of the tides and their " sets." 

BATHING EKOM A BOAT. 

This is the pleasantest mode for a swimmer, unless a sharp wind 
is blowing, in which case the operation of dressing in an open boat 
is not very agreeable. There should be a small ladder hung over the 
stern, by means of which the swimmer can get on board without 
trouble. It requires some practice to get into a boat neatly, if there 
is no ladder ; and the inexperienced bather will be tolerably certain 
to find himself engaged in a long struggle before he succeeds in 
getting into the boat ; and when he has done so, he w^ill be scraped 
raw on sundry projecting points of his anatomy, and much variegated 
with tar besides. 

BATHINa TEOM THE SHOEE. 

The two chief drawbacks to this mode of bathing are — first, that 
the clothes are somewhat endangered by prowling vagabonds ; and, 
second, the necessity for going into very shallow water at first. In 
all other respects, I very strongly recommend this plan. It is much 
more independent than the machine or boat-bathing. Care should be 
taken to reconnoitre the spot^ as it is very unpleasant, while wading 
into deep water, to come upon sunken rocks covered with those 
sharp- shelled mussels or the ocean barnacles. The best plan is to 
visit the spot at low water, and to make a plan, noting all rocks, 
stones, and holes, and marking their relative position on the plan. 



58 




SKATING. 

Passing at once from summer to winter, we find ourselves seeking- 
amusement upon the surface of the water, now too hard, and for 
most constitutions too cold, to permit bathers to enter. The two 
chief ice amusements are sliding and skating. As to the former, we 
speak not of it in these pages, for it is so simple a process that in- 
struction is not required. But as to skating, although a practical 
teacher is the best, yet much help can be gleaned even from a book. 
Skating is truly a fascinating pursuit, and seems to have been in- 
vented to serve as a recompence for our inability to fly. Indeed, as 
long as we have skates on our feet and good ice under them, we do 
not envy the birds, which at other times we are apt to do. Non- 
skaters can have no conception of the fascination which the art 
exerts over those who are well accustomed to it ; but if they wish to 
find a simile, they may do so in the dreams of flying that we all have 
experienced, in which we only have to flap our arms, glide easily 
along, and wonder why we never found it out before. Such a mode 
of progress is attained by the accomplished skater, who needs no 
powerful exertions to propel him, but sails about as if by simple 
volition. 



SKATING. 



59 



THE ICE. 

Again vre shall sup^jose the reader at the water's edge, deskous of 
makmg his first essay upon the ice that flop.ts on the surface. He is 
also supposed to have ascertained that the ice is sufficiently strong to 
bear^ not only his weight, but the shock of a fall or two^ to which 
he must philosophically look forward. Ice ought not to be knobby 
or covered with ripples, as is often the case when a frost and a breeze 
set in simultaneously. Also, there should be none of that thin super- 
ficial coating called cat's ice/' for the skate breaks through and 
trips up the wearer. Care should also be taken that stones and 
sticks are not frozen into the ice. It is as well to keep a look-out, if 
possible, during the first few days of the frost, and to prevent boys 
from throwing stones on the ice to try its strength. But the very 
worst substance that can find its way on ice is sand. It is so insig- 
nificant in appearance, that the skater cannot see it, especially when 
he is skating backwards ; and a few grains of sand, that together 
would not more than equal a mustard seed in size, are sufficient to 
upset a skater. It seems to have the effect of suddenly arresting' 
the progress, and cannot be knocked out of its bed like a stone, or 
cut through like a stick. I once knew a beautiful piece of ice en- 
tirely spoilt by a few boys, who walked upon it after they had been 
standing on a sand heap. 

PEEPAEATIOXS. 

Besides his skates, the learner should have with him a small 
gimlet, that screws into a wooden guard, or, in default, thrust into a 
large cork. Nothing is more dangerous than to carry an unprotected 
gimlet about the person. I knew a man killed by doing so some 
few years ago. The gimlet should be at least one size smaller than 
the screw of the skate, as otherwise the screw will not hold fast, and 
after the same boot has been used once or twice, it becomes what is 
called ''screw sick." In order to save time and trouble, it is better 
to bore the holes for the screws before leaving home, and to fill up 
the hole with some hard fatty substance, such as the common com- 
position candles are made of. Otherwise, it is very awkward to sit 
on the bank trying with the left hand to bore a hole straight into the 
right heel. Of course the position of this hole should be m.arked by 
tiying the skate upon the boot. An old duster, or any old piece of 
stuff, is useful, in order to wipe the skates after removing them, and 
so to guard against rust. A pocket-knife will of course be in its 
proper place. 

THE SKATE. 

A beginner generally damages a good pair of skates, so it is as 
well to content himself with an ordinary pair. Those at 5s. will do 
very well to learn with, and when he has attained some amount of 
skill, he may get a right good pair. Fluted skates, i.e., those which 
have a groove running along the steel, are not to be recommended. 
It is true that they give a better hold of the ice at first, but they are 
very apt to become blunt at the edges, and, besides, they cut up the 



60 



SKATING. 



ice into little shavings which collect in the groove, and by degrees 
project beyond the edge of the skate, when the wearer is sure to be 
thrown. As to the straps, let those cross-straps over the insteps be 
discarded ; they are quite useless, and only confine the foot. Very 
little strapping is required, as the only use of a strap is to prevent 
the skate from falling ojff when the foot is lifted from the ice. The 
accompanying cut is a representation of a skate, on which is 




hardly any strap. There is one at the toes, partially divided for 
convenience of fastening, and another at the heel. Those who strap 
tightly are sure to skate awkwardly. No one can dance grace- 
fully in tight boots, and the same rule holds good for skating. If 
the balance be properly kept, the straps are hardly needed at all. 
Here is another view of the same skate, which shows the arrange- 




ment of the straps, and also the peculiar formation of the steel, 
which is very wide in the centre, and very narrow at the heel and 
point. The object of this formation is that each edge of the steel 
may form part of two circles, one made by the curve of the steel as 
seen in the former drawing (the steel, it will be seen, does not lie flat 
on the ice, but has quite a sharp curve), and the other, by the vary- 



SKATING. 



61 



ing thickness of the material. This structure enables an accomplished 
skater to cut circles of very small dimensions. 

PUTTING ON THE SKATES. 

Tlie holes being properly made, the screws are introduced, and the 
skates placed straight along the feet. The little spikes at the front 
should be well pressed into the sole of the boot, and the straps drawn 
just tight enough to fix the skate firmly without cramping the foot. 
The ends of the straps must be carefully tucked away, as, if they 
become loose, they are apt to get under the skate and throw the 
wearer. If too long, let the superfluous portion be cut off. In case 
of a broken strap, it is as well to have a spare strap in the pocket. 
One of the most useful pieces of apparatus for a skater is a little 
strap about an inch long, with a buckle at each end. So, if a strap 
should break, he has only to insert this double-buckle at the broken 
parts, and he is all right again without loss of time. 

GETTING ON THE ICE. 

If possible, the skates should be put on while the wearer is sitting 
on some spot where his feet can overhang the ice. If that cannot 
be, he should w^alk fairly on the ice, and kneel on one knee while he 
fixes the skate on the opposite foot. A small impulse will then put 
him on his feet, where he wdll not find it easy to remain. Here I 
take an opportunity of condemning all such helps as chairs or pointed 
sticks. They are as objectionable as corks to a swimmer, and more- 
over give the beginner an awkward attitude, from which he does not 
recover for a long time, and sometimes not at all. At this period of 
his progress the learner finds a great difficulty in keeping his feet 
together. Generally, one foot slides to the right and the other to 
the left, and down he goes. But don't be disheartened; get up 
again by kneeling on one knee, as in putting on the skates, and try 
again. After a little while you try to progress, and do so as you 
would on land — i.e., by walking. But to walk on skates is very 
difficult on land, and just impossible to a beginner on the ice, and 
down you go again. You do not hurt yourself, though — no one ever 
hurts himself while learning the beginning of the art — so persevere 
until you have some notion of the method to be pursued, which is as 
follows : — 

STARTING. 

Let the learner stand as in the third position in dancing, with his 
right heel in the hollow of the left foot. The two feet will thus 
form right angles with each other, and it is from this position that 
the first step in skating is made. The learner now places his weight 
on the right foot, and at the same time presses the inside edge of the 
left foot into the ice. A push given by the left foot, which is imme- 
diately taken off the ice and brought parallel with its fellow, sends 
the skater forward for a few feet. The same thing is repeated with 
the left foot, and so alternately, until the skater is able to get along, 
although very clumsily, and with his hands flying about, but still 



62 



SKATING* 



getting on. When he can skate easily, and keep his hands still, he 
should try to skate backwards. 

SKATING BACKWAKDS. 

There are several modes of learning how to skate backwards, of 
which the best is as follows : — Let the reader stand quite still upon 
the ice, place his right foot well in advance, the toe turned inwards. 
His weight must be nearly entirely on the left foot. Then with the 
right foot let him describe a semicircle on the ice, and he will 
thereby force himself a few inches backwards. This movement is 
repeated with the other foot, and by degrees the skater finds himself 
at some distance from the spot on which he started. At first he 
seems to make no progress whatever, and appears to be fixed to the 
spot. But after a little practice he overcomes the difficulty, and 
begins to glide backwards in a sinuous course rather pretty to look 
at. Being familiar with this, his next lesson is the Outside Edge. 

OUTSIDE EDGE. 

Hitherto, the inside edge of the skate has been used, because it is 
the easiest. But a good skater entirely disdains the use of the inside 
edge, and so we must proceed to the outside. The best mode of 
learning this feat is by marking a circle on the ice, some eight feet 
or so in diameter, and putting some object to mark its centre. 
The learner then stands on the outside of the circle, his right skate 
upon the line with its outside edge firmly pressed into it, and his 
right shoulder turned towards the centre. In this position he pushes 
himself round the circle by means of the left foot, keeping the right 
skate on the line. After going round once or twice, so as to learn 
the direction — always being careful to hang his head well over his 
right shoulder — he puts himself to speed, and, still keeping the right 
skate on the ice, tries to cross his left foot over the right. He will 
certainly fail at first, but after a few trials will succeed in getting 
the foot over. After he has done so once or twice, he should turn 
his left side to the ice, and go round in the opposite direction, trying 
to cross the right foot over the left. When he can go round the 
circle either way, by continually crossing the feet, the learner is 
ready for the next movement. 

THE CHOSS-EOLL. 

To skate the "Cross- Roll," the skater stands as in learning the 
outside edge, and starting on the right foot, crosses the left over 
it. But instead of repeating the movement, and so forming a 
circle, he immediately crosses the right foot again over the left, 
and so» on. Then, instead of making one large circle, he forms a 
succession of arcs of circles, by which he is carried forward. The 
legs should be crossed over each other as far as possible, and the 
skater should not be content until he can even cross the knees. 
This is a very pretty movement when neatly done, and one of 
the most graceful on the ice. The hands must hang quite easily and 
quietly, and the body carried uprightly without being stiffened. Care 



SKATING. 



63 



must be taken that, in doing this figure, the outside edges of the 
skates are pressed firmly into the ice when they touch it, or the 
«kater will be liable to a slip. 

FIGURE OF EIGHT. 

We now come to the first step in real figure-skating, 
which is the very quintessence of the art. The first 
figure learned is generally the 3 or the 8. Some pre- 
fer the former, but we find that the latter is the better 
figure on which to begin. Its appearance when cut 
is shown in the fi^gure, and it is achieved as follows : — 
The skater starts as in the last figure, but makes an 
entire circle before he crosses his feet. So that, if 
his right foot starts on the upper circle, his left makes 
the lower one. N.B. — Always start from the point 
where the circles cut each other. At first the skater 
will find some difficulty in getting quite round the circles, but he 
will soon accomplish that object if he slightly swing the off-leg round 
towards the toes of the other. In good skating, the course is en- 
tirely steered by the foot that is off the ice ; that which is on it only 
serving to sustain the skater. 

ATTITUDE OP THE LEGS. 

Let it be a rule, without exception, to keep the knees straight 
when skating. Nothing looks more clumsy or awkward than a 
skater who keeps his knees bent. And even if he can cut all the rarest 
figures, the bent knees destroy their effect, and the skater still re- 
mains ungraceful. 

FIGURE OF THREE. 

No pains should be spared upon this figure, as it is a most elegant 
one, and is, besides, the key to all figures. When the 3 is once mas- 
tered, other figures become quite easy. The mode of doing it is 
this : — Start on the right foot as if going to make an 8, but do it as 
gently as possible. But, instead of swinging the left foot round so 
as to make a circle, let it remain at least afoot heliind the right foot. 
The consequence of so doing is, that when three-fourths of the circle 
^ire completed, the off'-foot gives a curious sway to the bod}^, and the 
skater spins round on his right foot, changing at the same time from 
the outside to the inside edge, and cuts the second half of the 3 
backwards. When the skater can do this easily with the right foot, 
he should practise it with the left ; and when he can cut the 3 with 
equal ease with either foot, he should cut 
two together, as seen in the drawing. Let 
the reader here refer to the drawing, while 
we trace the skater through it. He begins 
with the left-hand 3, starting with his left 
foot on the outside edge ; when he gets to the 
twist of the 3 he spins round, and finishes the 
figure (still with the left foot) on the inside 
edge hacJcwards. His right foot is now at 
liberty to pass to the top of the right- 





64 



SKATING. 



hand 8, whicli he cuts in like manner. Especial care must be 
taken to keep the knees straight, and to preserve a graceful car- 
riage of the body. If the skater should be so far off his balance 
as to find any difficulty in spinning round, he will gain his object 
by throwing his weight a very little towards the toe of the skate. 
The reason why the skater curves round in this twist is, that the 
steel of the skate has a curved form ; and when for a moment the 
body is quite upright, the whole skate spins round on its centre, as 
on a pivot. 

OUTSIDE EDGE BACKWARDS. 

When the skater is quite at home in his 3's and 8's, he should 
begin to skate backwards on the outside edge. The best mode of 
learning to do so is by cutting a 3, then immediately after the twist the 
skater places the outside edge of the off-foot on the ice, at the same 
time lifting the other foot. This is soon learned, and is a great 
help to the next figure. 

BACK CEOSS-EOLL. 

Any one who can do this figure properly, may count himself a 
good skater. It seems w^orse than the Asses' Bridge, for we know 
many who can cut all the preceding figures beautifully, and are yet 
quite unable to skate the Back Cross-Roll. We rather fancy that 
the great cause of failure in this figure is, that too great an impetus 
is given to the body at starting. Now, it may be accepted as a rule 
in all figure-skating, that the best skaters use the least force. In- 
deed, a really good skater will continue to execute figures for an hour 
at a time, and none but a very practised eye can tell by what force 
he is impelled. In fact, the position of the head is the great secret 
in all these delicate manoeuvres ; the difference of an inch in its atti- 
tude making just the difference between a large or a small circle. 
The 3 is the skater's great reservoir of power. Whenever he finds 
himself in want of a little more impetus, he cuts a 3, and by bear- 
ing a little forward at the twist, gains enough power for a very large 
figure. In learning the Back Cross-Roll, the skater need not start 
with any impetus at all. Let him merely stand still, place the left 
outside edge well into the ice, lean slightly upon that side, and gently 
swing the other foot round, until it has crossed the left foot and is 
planted with its outside edge on the ice. The left foot is then crossed 
behind the right, and it will be found that the mere swing of the 
foot and leg is sufficiently powerful to urge the skater backwards. 
The greatest care should be taken to avoid too great an impetus at 
starting, and in a short time the skater will find himself able to 
glide over the ice in this manner with perfect ease. There is a rather 
neat adaptation of the Back Cross-Roll. Two skaters stand oppo- 
site each other, and hold hands. They then begin to start on the 
Cross- RoU, one going backwards and the other forwards. Both, of 
course, must keep the most exact time, and a tolerably large piece 
of ice is required for them to display themselves to advantage. The 
perfection of the Back Cross-Roll is exhibited when a skater can cut 



SKATING-. 



65 



the figure 8 on the outside edge backwards, keeping his knees 
straight and his hands quiet. 

SPEEAD EAGLE. 

The heraldic bird from whose contour this figure derives its 
iicime is anything but graceful in aspect. ISTor does the ice- figure 
redeem its character. But as the accomplishment of the figure 
is thought necessary by most good skaters, we just mention 
it here. In this figure the two heels are placed nearl}^ close 
together, or at all events in the same line, and the skates turned 
in exactly opposite directions, so that one skate goes forwards 
and the other backwards. The attitude that is assumed by 
the skater while performing this manoeuvre is mightily like that of 
the sprePud eagles on our p.rmorial bearings. N.B. — In this figure 
the knees of the skater are to be bent at right angles. The usual 
m.ode of ^'spreading the eagle" is to skate forwards rapidly for some 
little distance, and then suddenly to spring into position. The line 
of direction must be very accurately taken and the weight thrown 
rather on the back- foot, or the skater will make a series of awkward 
plunges, something like those of an ill-balanced kite, instead of 
gliding forwards easily and quietly. If he likes, he may complete a 
large circle, by allo,wing the toes to come a little forward, and lean- 
ing upon the inside edges. But if he wishes to accomplish a great 
feat, and astonish the natives very much, he may do so by pressing 
the toes still further outwards, and throwing himself upon the two 
outside edges. In this position the circle will be just the reverse of 
the other. 

ICE-WALTZIXC. 

If neatly done, this is a very pretty figure, and of course requires 
two persons. If they can be lady and gentleman, so much the better; 
if not, one must enact the lady as well as he can. The waltz-step 
is performed by cutting a very small 3, and, instead of coming 
round on the inside edge, finishing the twist on the outside edge 
of the other skate. Exact step is required, or down go both 
parties. 

THE QUADRILLE. 

When four good skaters get together, they generally manage a 
quadrille, which, if v/ell danced, is about the most attractive of all 
the figures. One is appointed leader, and he gives notice of the 
many changes of step, just as the leader of a peal of bells gives 
notice of their changes. The figure that is cut in the ice is com- 
posed of five circles, one in the centre, and the four others ranged 
cross-wise on its outside. Each skater stands at the furthest ex- 
tremity of one of the outside circles ; and when the leader gives the 
word, all start at once with the 8-step. They thus approach each 
other, and as the central circle forms the top of an 8 common to 
all, it follows that all four skaters are going round this circle at the 
same. time. When they have gone round their circles several times, 



66 



SKATING. 



the leader calls the next change. This time, instead of simply 
making their 8, the skaters cut a three when they come to the centre 
circle, and so go round it backwards. Next change brings them 
backwards on the outside edge, done by rapidly changing feet as 
the 3 is formed. There are innumerable steps in this very pretty 
figure, which is almost as variable as a cotillon, which name would 
be quite as applicable as that of quadrille. It is a beautiful sight to 
see the dancers simultaneously approaching one point, aU rapidly 
following each other round a little circle, with only a foot or two 
between each person ; then diverging upon their several tracks, and 
again meeting in the centre. Let the reader believe one who can 
speak from experience, and understand that any amount of labour 
and perseverance will be well spent, if he is only qualified to join in 
such a cotillon, or even to perfectly appreciate its beauties. 



67 




ARCHERY. 

" In my tyrne, my poore father was as dilig-ent to teach me to shoote as to learn 
any other thynge ; and so I think other men did theyr children. He taught me 
how to drawe, how to laye my body in my bowe, and not to draw wyth strength 
of armes, as other nacions do, but wyth strength of body." 

LATiiiEn's Sermons, black letter, 1549. 

Akchery was very little understood by the Anglo-Saxons, the bow 
being used by them not as an instrument of war, but merely for 
the purpose of killing birds, and from the contemptuous manner in 
which these people were spoken of by the Normans, as a nation not 
even having arrows, it may reasonably be inferred that their bows 
were weak and inefficient, and their method of handling them ex- 
tremely imperfect. Great reliance appears to have been placed on 
the destructive powers of the bow by the Normans, who probably 
paid much attention to the practice of it, as they had both horse and 
foot archers in their armies ; and, in face, their hard-earned victory 
over the Saxons at the battle of Hastings may be mainly attributed 
to the superior skill of their bowmen. 

Troni these circumstances it appears that the use of the bow for 
the purposes of war was first introduced into England by the Nor- 
mans, and it soon became the favourite weapon of the people, by 
whom the practice of it was carried to such perfection, that they 
were considered the best archers in Europe. 

F 2 



68 



AKCHEEY. 



To encourage arcliery as much as possible, Acts of Parliament 
were passed, at different times, enforcing the constant practice of 
it, and regulating the supply of bow- staves from foreign countries, 
and also to compel the arrow-head makers to temper and finish the 
arrow-heads with care. In order that a proper supply of bow-staves 
might always be in the kingdom, a law was made, in the reign of 
Edward IV., by which every merchant trading to those countries 
from whence the bow-staves were usually brought, was obliged to 
import four staves for every ton of merchandise, and that in the 
same ships in which the goods were loaded, and also to bring ten 
bow-staves for every tun of IMahiisey or Tyre wine he might import. 
In the reign of Richard III., still more to encourage their im- 
portation, staves of six feet and a half long were exempted from 
duty, and persons were employed at the different ports to examine 
them, and see that they were of good stuff. As the yew was the 
rarest and most valuable wood of which bows were made, to prevent 
a too-great consumption of it, no person under seventeen years of 
age, unless possessed of property worth forty ma-rks, or the son of a 
person having an estate of ten pounds per annum, might ha-ve a yew 
bow, under a penalty of six shillings and eightperice. In the reign 
of Henry VIII. every person under the age of sixty, not labouring 
under bodily infirmity, was compelled by law to exercise the art of 
shooting wiih the long bow ; and fathers, masters, and governors 
were ordered to train up the children under their care in the use of 
it. It was also enacted that no one under twenty-four years of age 
might shoot at a standing mark, except in roving, and then he must 
change his mark every time ; and no person above that age might 
shoot at any mark whose distance was less than eleven score yards, 
under a penalty of fourpence for each shot. The inhabitants of 
towns and cities were likewise ordered to make butts, and keep them 
in proper repair, under a penalty of twenty shillings a month, and 
exercise themselves in shooting at them on every holiday. 

Even the price of the bow was regulated by Parliament, for in 
the 38th of Henry VIII. no bowyer might sell a yew bow for more 
than three shillings and fourpence ; and in the 8th of Elizabeth, 
the price fixed for a foreign yew bow was six shillings and eight- 
pence. In the time of Charles I. proclamations were issued, order- 
ing the lord mayor and common-council to prevent the fields near 
London from being so enclosed as to hinder the profitable exercise of 
shooting. A special commission was likewise issued, in the fourth 
year of the reign of Charles I., enforcing the practice of the long 
bow ; but this commission was afterwards revoked, on account of the 
abuses and extortions committed under sanction thereof. And in 
1633, by another commission, an attempt was made to induce the 
people to combine the practice of the long bow with the use of the 
pike. 

During the civil wars archery fell gradually into disuse, and as by 
degrees various improvements were introduced into the manufacture 
of fire-arms, by which they were rendered more powerful and less 
clumsy and unwieldy than they had originally been, they ultimately 



AECHEEY. 



69 



superseded the bow, for, altliougli target-shooting is mentioned during 
the reign of Charles II., and even so lately as the year 1753, when 
targets were erected in Finsbury fields, it is merely as a recreation, 
not as a revival of its old importance ; and at the present time this 
once highly- esteemed and national exercise is only practised as being 
one of the most innocent and healthy pastimes which can be in- 
dulged in. 

BOWS. 

In the olden time bows made of yew-tree were the most highly 
prized, on account of their superior strength and elasticity ; of late 
years^ however, several kinds of foreign wood have been used in the 
manufacture of bows, and have been found, in point oP durability, 
almost to rival the yew. Amongst these woods, the scarcest is the 
dark ruby, which is brought from the east, and held in very high 
esteem by the bowyers ; the laburnum, thorn acacia, tulip, cocoa, 
purple, and rose woods form excellent bows, particularly when 
properly backed with hickory or hornbeam. The yew, in the opinion 
of many writers and archers, however, still asserts its superiority 
over all the other woods ; and foreign yew is, perhaps, unrivalled, 
especially if backed with hickory ; but the difficulty of procuring a 
branch perfectly sound and free from fault, of a sufficient length, 
renders a yew bow by far the most expensive. Lancewood bows 
rank next in estimation to the yew, and are, if anything, rather 
more elegant in their appearance. 

Bows made of two pieces of wood joined together, and thence 
called hackedj are much stronger than self, or those made of one 
piece only ; the flat, or outward part, of a bow is termed the back, 
and the round, or inward part, the belly. The proper length of 
a bow for youth is five feet, and as it is an expensive article, and, 
when well adapted to his size and strength, highly prized by the 
archer, great care should be taken to preserve it from even the 
slightest injury. At the end of the day's shooting, therefore, it 
should be unstrung and placed in an oil- skin case lined with baize, 
and it should always be kept in a temperate atmosphere ; when 
done with for the season, it must be well rubbed with linseed oil 
and bees'-wax ; and, indeed, by many archers, this precaution is 
taken before putting it in the case, at the conclusion of the day's 
sport. 

THE STRING. 

The string is a very important part of the bowman's apparatus, 
and must be selected with great care. The best are those made of 
hemp, for catgut being extremely susceptible of heat and moisture, 
does not always retain a proper degree of tension. The strength of 
the bow must entirely regulate the thickness of the string ; a thin^ 
string will cast the arrow furthest, but a stout one with by far the 
greatest certainty ; yet the choice is of no great consequence, pro- 
vided the string is not too thin for the power of the bow, especially 
if the bow be a backed one, for, should the string break, the con- 
cussion might shatter the bow to pieces. In general, an eye is 



70 



AECHEEY. 



made at one end of the string only, it being left for the archer him- 
self, as bows are of various lengths, to make the noose at the other 
end ; this he will find, at first, rather difficult to accomplish ; but if 
he examines the noose on an old string, he will readily ascertain 
the proper method of doing it. At the nocking point, or that part 
where the nock of the arrow is usually put, and for the space of 
three fingers above and below the point, the string should be 
whipped, or bound round with silk, or fine twine, well waxed with 
bees' -wax. This whipping is of great importance, as it preserves 
the string from wearing, and also fills the nock of the arrow, which 
should always fit rather tightly. The noose should be very carefully 
whipped, as the string is extremely liable to chafe at that part : 
indeed, many archers whip the eye also, but that is not so essen- 
tially necessary, although perhaps on the whole it makes the string 
more complete. Whenever the whipping wears off, the string 
should be immediately re-whipped, and when several of the filaments 
or threads of a string are worn, throw it away, it being extremely 
hazardous to use an imperfect one, for it is an yll-saved halfpenny 
that costs a man a crowne it is therefore good policy to have two 
or three spare strings in readiness, in case of such an accident. If 
the string is now and then rubbed with a little bees' -wax, it will be 
much improved, and rendered more impervious to moisture. Never 
let the string become twisted or ravelled through negligence ; but if 
by any chance it should become so, re- twist and wax it before you 
use it again. 

STKINGING THE BOW. 

Before giving the directions as to the proper method of stringing 
the bow, we must premise, that it is the inward part, or belly of 
the boWj which should be bent inwards, and the flat or back part 
which should be bent outwards, and that any attempt to bend it the 
reverse way would most probably shatter it to pieces. Grasp the 
bow by the handle, or part round which the binding is wound, with 
the right hand, holding the back of the bow towards your body, and 
keeping your wrist close to your side ; then place the lower limb of 
the bow — which can always be readily distinguished from the upper 
by its having a shorter horn — against the inside of the right foot, 
and turn the foot rather inwards, to keep the bow from slipping. 
Next place the centre of the left wrist on the upper limb of the bow, 
and close to the eye of the string, keep the arm straight, and let the 
tip of the thumb be on one edge of the bow, and the knuckle of the 
fore-finger on the other. Pull the bow smartly back with the right 
hand, and press it down with the left, slide the wrist up towards the 
horn, and then with the fore- finger and thumb drive the eye of the 
string into the nock, and before the hand is withdrawn, see that the 
eye is correctly placed in the nock. Whilst performing this move- 
ment, some caution is requisite to keep the three unemployed fingers 
clear of the string, for if they get between it and the bow, they will 
most probably receive a very smart and unpleasant pinch. The left 
leg should be planted about three quarters of a yard in advance of 



AECHEEY. 



71 



the riglit, and kept quite straight, in order to give a proper steadi- 
ness to the attitude ; but the right knee may be slightly bent. Be-- 
fore stringing the bow, carefully examine the string to see that it 
is not twisted, and that the noose is exactly in the centre of the 
nock. If the young archer does not succeed in stringing the bow, 
in his first or second essay, he must not be discouraged, as it re- 
quires a certain knack or method to perform it correctly and readily, 
which knack can only be attained by practice. In unstringing the 
bow, the attitude is precisely the same as in stringing it ; the lower 
horn must be placed against the right foot, the middle of the bow 
grasped in the right hand, and the left wrist placed on the upper 
horn, so that the fore-finger may with facility reach round the eye 
of the string ; by pressing the bow down with the left hand, and 
pulling it sharply back with the right, the string will become 
slackened, and then in an instant the fore-finger should raise the 
eye out of the nock. 

THE ARROWS. 

Arrows are generally made of ash, red deal, and a light white 
wood, very similar in appearance to that of the abele and lime trees ; 
fletchers hold the red deal in the highest estimation, but as it wears 
out rapidly and is liable to splinter, arrows made of it should be var- 
nished two or three times over. The length and weight of the 
arrows should be in proportion to the size of the bow, but for 
youths' bows, the length is usually fixed at twenty-four inches. 
Some archers give the preference to arrows tapering from the fea- 
thers to the pile ; others, to those sloping from the pile to the 
feathers ; and others, again, to those arrows which are thickest in 
the middle ; the shape, however, is quite a matter of fancy, as it is 
yet undecided, even among practised archers, which is the best or 
swiftest in flight. Arrows have three feathers afiixed to them, two 
of which being taken from a gander are white, whilst the third, that 
of a grey goose, is brown ; this is usually denominated the cock 
feather, and should always be placed uppermost, when the arrow is 
placed on the string. Although the grey goose feathers are generally 
highly esteemed, yet turkey and eagles' feathers are much superior 
to them, on account of their greater elasticity and strength. The 
young archer will find, when shooting with the wind, that sharp* 
pointed arrows are the best, and when the wind is strong and un- 
favourable, that blunt- headed ones are decidedly preferable. 

THE QUIVER 

Is usually made of tin, or leather, and should be long enough to take 
in the arrows up to the feather. The quiver is seldom required 
except in roving, the pouch and loop being substituted in the target- 
ground. 

THE BRACER, GLOVE, BELT, POUCH, TASSEL, AND GREASE-BOX. 

The bracer is made of leather, and is buckled round the arm, to 
preserve it from the violent stroke of the string when loosed, and 



AKCHEEY. 



also to allow tlie string to glide easily along^ without being Iiindered 
by the folds of the sleeve. 

The SHOOTING- GLOVE consists of three finger-stalls attached by 
thongs to a leather bracelet, which buttons on the wrist. The glove 
should be made either of cow-hide, or horse butt leather ; and as new 
leather spoils the shot, it should be greased before it is used, so that 
the string may glance easily over it. 

The BELT, also made of cow-hideleather, 
has fastened to it, on the right side, a 
POUCH, sharped like a small bucket, to 
receive the piles or heads of the arrows, 
and a leather loop to keep them steady 
in their proper position. 

The TASSEL is made of green worsted, 
and is hung on the left side of the archer; 
it is used to wipe the dirt off the arrows 
A Belt and Poucli for Archery, the instant they are drawn from the 
ground. 

The GREASE-BOX, which should hang by the side of the tassel, 
may be made of any kind of fancy wood : it is indispensable to the- 
archer, as the grease, made of equal quantities of suet and bees' -wax, 
well melted together, is used for rubbing on the fingers of the 
shooting- glove, when they become hard and dry, which is a great 
hindrance to the rapid loosing of the string. 



THE TARGET. 

The face of the target is made of canvas, fastened on to a flat cir- 
cular surface of bass, composed of straw, in manufacture similar to 
that of common straw bee-hives. On the canvas facing, four circles 
are painted, surrounding a golden centre or eye ; the first circle close 
to the eye, is red ; the next, white, usually denominated the inner 
white the third, black ; and the fourth, another or outer white;'* 
the outside verge or petticoat of the target is usually painted green. 
A certain value is attached to each circle of the target, generally 
computed thus : outer white, 1, — black, 3, — inner white, 5, — red 
7, — and the gold eye, 9 ; their real value, however, according to the 
space occupied by each circle on the target, differs materially from 
the above estimate, for by this method of reckoning the gold is valued 
at 9, — the red circle, 3 — inner white, 2, — black, IJ, — and outer 
white, 1 ; the game may be counted either according to the hits on 
the target, without reference to its circles, or else according to a 
certain value, assigned to the divisions, by the players, beforehand. 
The proper mode of keeping an account of the game is to have a 
card divided ofi" in the following manner, in which the hits of the 
several archers should be pricked to their respective names, either 
with a pin or a needle, termed a pricker. 




AECHEET. 



73 



NAMES. 


GOLD. 

9 


RED. 

7 


INNER 
WHITE. 

5 


BLACK. 

3 


OUTEH 
WHITE. 

1 


TOTAL 
HITS. 


VALUE 
OP 


A. 
















B. 

















C. 

















The size of the targets must always be proportioned to the skill of 
the archer, and the distance he intends to stand from them. There 
sliould always be a pair of them in the field, as shooting from one to 
the other shortens the walk, and consequently lessens the fatigue 
considerably. Targets made of milled board, although not half so 
durable, are often substituted for the others, especially where it is 
not convenient to keep them fixed, as they are far more portable. 
The young tyro should not commence archery by practising at dis- 
tant marks ; ten or fifteen yards, as a beginning, will be found the 
best range ; and it may be increased by degrees, when some profi- 
ciency is attained, to sixty yards, which is usually considered the 
key to all other distances ; by thus gradually practising, the archer's 
eye and hand will be so well drilled, and become so steady, that he 
will scarcely ever miss the smallest mark. Much advantage may be 
derived from shooting at different distances, as by such practice great 
confidence in the use of the bow is attained, and also strength in the 
management of it. The prizes usually shot for at targets are, gold 
and silver medals, silver arrows, silver bugles, and silver cups ; bows 
and arrows are also frequently given. Two is the usual number of 
prizes shot for at the target ; one being for the shot nearest the centre, 
and the other for the greatest number of hits. 

BUTTS. 

Butts are composed of long plats of turf laid one upon the other, 
somewhat in the form of a pyramid, and then pressed very closely 
together; for grown-up persons, they are usually about nine feet 
wide and four feet thick at the base, seven feet high and one foot 
four inches wide at the top; a circular piece of thin white paste- 
board, about four inches in diameter, should be placed exactly in 
the middle as a mark, and it should be fastened to the butt by 
having a peg driven through its centre. Some archers prefer butts 
made of straw laid first in trusses, then pressed down as tightly 
as possible, and the ends afterwards cut smooth; butts made in 
this way, from never injuring the arrows, are better than those 
made of earth, and if kept under cover, are extremely durable. 
The butts are generally placed in sets of four, and so arranged 
that they do not stand in the archers' way when shooting at any 
of the lengths. What is termed a single end is, shooting to one 



74 



AECHEEY. 



mark only, while a double end is shooting to a mark, and then 
back again to the mark just shot from. Shots placed outside the 
pasteboard mark are not reckoned, and he is the winner who during 
the play places the greatest number of shots in the mark. 

POSITION. 

The archer should place himself with his 
left side to the target, and turn his face 
toward it ; he must stand perfectly upright, 
and plant his left foot in advance of his right, 
and hold the bow horizontally in his left hand, 
w^ith the string upwards ; his next movement 
must be to draw an arrow from the pouch, 
and carry it under the string, until the pile 
passes about an inch on the exterior of the 
left side of the bow; the forefinger of his 
left or bow hand should then be pressed down 
on the arrow to hold it secure, whilst the 
right hand slides the nock of the arrow into 
its proper place on the string, where it is 
held fast by the first and second fingers, being 
put close to and on each side of the nock, 
holding it and the string firmly by the middle 
of the first joint. The arrow being thus placed, the archer should 
gradually press the bow down with the left hand, and draw the stiing 
back with his right, and as he draws, he must keep his right elbow 
well up, and raise his arms to the requisite elevation — that is, so as 
to bring the nock of the arrow^ just below his ear, and then draw the 
arrow to the pile; he must not be more than a minute in taking aim 
before he looses the string, and indeed, according to the strict rules 
of archery, he should make no pause whatever in these movements. 
In long shots, as the arrow has to take a larger curve than in target 
shooting, the right hand must be somewhat depressed, so that the 
arrow may be drawn towards the breast, instead of the ear. In 
taking aim, the archer should keep his eyes steadily fixed on his 
mark, and not look along the arrow ; many archers, however, look 
down the arrow, but it is perfectly erroneous to do so. Dr. Roger 
Ascham, in his " Toxophilous," says upon this point, " Some men 
wonder whye, in casting a man's eye at the marke, the hand 
should go straighte; but surely if he considered the nature of a 
man's eye he would not wonder at it. The eye is the very tongue 
wherewith witte and reason doth speake to every part of the body. 
This is most evident in fencing and feighting. The foot, the hande, 
and all wayteth upon the eye. The eye is nothing more than a 
certaine windowe for witte to shoot out her head at. The chiefe 
cause why men cannot shute straighte, is because theye looke at 
theyre shafte," The archer should stand in front of the mark he is 
shooting from ; if his arrow falls from the string, and he cannot reach 
it with his bow, it is considered a shot, and is pricked down as such. 
When he has shot, the archer should turn round to the left, and stand 
behind the person he is shooting with. 




AECHEEY. 



75 



EOVING. 

In shooting roving, the archers ramble about over heath and field, 
and select, as they walk along, some object, such as a tree or a bush, 
to aim at, and when the distances of the marks are judiciously varied, 
shooting at rovers is an excellent method of practising for improve- 
ment. The interest and animation of this system are greatly enhanced 
by the continual change of scene, and indeed by many persons it is 
considered superior to all other species of archery. From the distance 
at which the marks are usually selected, the rovers are frequently 
obliged to shoot at great heights, and are thus compelled to draw the 
bow more towards the shoulder than in target shooting; they are 
also accustomed to draw a much stronger bow than is necessary in that 
method, and to measure distances with extreme accuracy. Eveiy 
archer ought to have at least a dozen arrows with him in these ex- 
cursions, and they should be heavier and longer than those used for 
other kinds of shooting; blunt- headed arrows, indeed, are the best 
for roving, as from the force with which they are sent, if the piles 
were sharp, they would most probably penetrate so far into the mark, 
that it would be almost impossible to extricate them. If this acci- 
dent should happen, cut away the wood round the arrow, rather than 
spoil it by violently trying to pull it out. 

CLOUT SHOOTING. 

In this method, the target is only a small piece of pasteboard 
about a foot in diameter, fastened on a stick; it is generally fixed 
in the ground about one hundred and fifty yards from the archer, 
a-nd as the mark is so small, every arrow is reckoned that falls within 
two or three bows' length of it. This mode of shooting is useful 
when a regular target field cannot be obtained, as the marks can be 
fixed in any common or field. The practice is equally as good as 
target shooting, and the trouble of carrying the mark very incon- 
siderable. Seven is the game. 

FLIGHT SHOOTING. 

Flight shooting takes its name from the flight or light arrows used 
in the sport, and is practised without regard either to aim or distance. 
It is very apt to fracture the bow, and from its requiring neither 
skill nor judgment, is not worth practising. The archer who can 
send his arrows to the greatest distance is the winner. The game is 
seven in this also. 

GENEKAL OBSERVATIONS. 

In learning archery, never begin with a bow too strong for your 
muscular powers ; it is an extremely imprudent plan, for by at- 
tempting to draw it, you may so overstrain yourself, that you will 
be obliged to lay the exercise aside. It is not only hurtful to the 
body to use a powerful bow at first, but it is extremely per- 
nicious, as it affects the progress of the beginner; for it is im- 
possible to attain that skill and freedom in the use of it which 
could otherwise be attained by using a moderately-powerful one in 
the early attempts. 



76 



AECHEET. 



It is quite unnecessary to unstring the bow after every shoot^ 
although many archers recommend the practice. 

Never use another person's bow, for if you should happen to break 
it, the loss to him would be irreparable. 

There should be no talking at the time of shooting. 

Never draw a bow when a person stands before you, in case it should 
snap ; the person bending the bow scarcely ever suffers from such 
accidents, as the pieces mostly fly forwards. 

If the arrow falls upon the edge of the circle, it must be counted 
as being in that which has the greater part ; but if exactly in the 
centre of the division, it must be reckoned in the outer circle. 

After two or three arrows are shot, the archer should cease for a 
short time, otherwise his aim will become loose and unsteady. 

Elevation is a point of archery which should be particularly attended 
to ; if it be too low, the arrow will fly short of the mark, and if too 
high, it will fly over. If the mark is at a moderate distance, the 
lower the elevation can be made, the more certain will be the shot. 
According to the modern practice, if the mark is thirty yards off, it 
is proper to shoot point blank at it ; but if beyond that distance, with 
some degree of elevation. 

Some archers make an allowance for the wind — that is, they shoot 
wide on the side on which the wind lies, so that the wind may carry 
the arrow to the mark ; however, the young archer should not trust 
to this plan, as it frequently deceives. Standing in the wind, and 
shooting through it, is far better, and more certain. 

Ere closing this sketch of the art of archery, we must impress 
upon our readers that nothing but a steady and earnest practice 
of the rules laid down for their guidance, can ever make them 
skilful archers, for without diligent practice, the most laboured in- 
structions and elaborately- written treatises would be entirely thrown 
away. 

" Sound, sound the music, sound it. 
Let hills and rocks rebound it. 

In praise of Archery. 
Used as a game, it pleases, 
The mind to joy it raises. 
And throws off all diseases 

Of lazy luxury." 

Allan- Eamsat. 



77 




FENCING. 

" The foiled assassin instantly took off his mask, and begged Crichton to spare 
his life, exclaiming that he was his pupil, Vincenzo." (p. 79.) 

An essay upon the origin of the sword, and the various alterations 
of shape and materials which it has at different periods undergone, 
would be far too diffuse and elaborate for these pages ; we shall 
therefore content ourselves with giving a slight historical sketch of 
the elegant and slender rapier, the prototype of the modern small 
sword, the proper use of which constitutes the art of fencing. The 
precise date of its invention is shrouded in great obscurity, but it was 
introduced into England from France, and was certainly in use in 
the early part of the sixteenth century. In elegance of shape and 
variety of workmanship, rapiers far surpassed all weapons of the sword 
kind ; but in general utility, especipJly in the stern battle-field, 
it yielded the palm to the stout broad-sword, which was more 
adapted for hewing through the steel panoply of the knights, and 
the quilted brigandines of the foot soldiers, when 

Shield, helmet, man, pressed helmet, man, and shield.'* 

In 1585, Rowland Yorke seems to have brought in the system of 
using the rapier in deciding quarrels by duels in fields, a practice 



78 



FENCING. 



"whicli Darcie, in his annals of Queen Elizabeth, styles **a wicked 
and pernicious fashion." As the rapier became fashionable, foreign 
professors settled in London, to teach the "art of defence," as 
fencing was then termed, and some of them charged exceedingly 
high prices for a complete course of instruction. Much opposition 
was for some time maintained against this new system of fighting 
by many authors, who vented their contempt in sharp satires ; and 
the people generally, who entertained a strong prejudice in favour 
of the sword and buckler play, which was one of their most es- 
teemed pastimes, looked with no favourable eye upon the passes and 
repasses, stoccatos, &c., which were taught in the rapier practice. 
After the lapse of a few years, despite the anathemas of the satirists, 
and the prepossessions of the people, the rapier became so fashion- 
able that the word sword was laid aside, and was almost forgotten ; 
even the authors themselves, when treating upon military weapons, 
calling all of the sword genus by the general name of o'apier. 
About the thirteenth year of Queen Elizabeth's reign the rapiers 
were made excessively long, in imitation of a continental fashion, 
and that person was esteemed the greatest gallant who had the 
deepest ruff and the longest rapier. This length of blade was car- 
ried to such a ridiculous extreme, that, in order to check the folly, 
an Act of Parliament was passed, limiting the length of the blade 
to three feet six inches, and steady grave citizens were stationed at 
the gates of London to measure the weapons of all the passers by, 
and break such as exceeded the legal standard. This and similar 
restrictive laws checked any further increase in point of length, but 
it was not till towards the latter end of the next century that these 
**bird spits" — as they were sarcastically, yet truly termed — were 
laid aside, and smaller swords with fewer and plainer guards to 
their hilts introduced. These w^eapons became in turn equally as 
fashionable as the rapier had been before, and in shape much re- 
sembled the ornamental dress or court swords of the present day, 
and few men, whether old or young, however moderate their circum- 
stances, considered themselves properly attired on Sundays or holi- 
days unless they had a trusty blade dangling by their side. The 
wearing swords in general was not abolished until the middle of the 
reign of George III. ; and as the fashion is now entirely relinquished 
by all but military men, and being weapons seldom or never resorted 
to in duels in England, the art of fencing is now followed only as an 
elegant amusement and accomplishment, giving grace to the move- 
ments, and adding, from the salutary exercise which it affords, to 
the general health of the body. 

The subject we have selected as the illustrative head- piece to this 
article, is the murder of one of the most learned and skilful men of 
the sixteenth century, the Admirable Crichton, whose talents, 
whether displayed in disputing with learned men in the colleges, 
or breaking lances in the gay tournament, were equally conspicuous. 
He was born in Scotland in the year 1551, and showed such early 
literary proficiency, that he was made a Master of Arts when only 
fourteen years of age. He travelled on the Continent, and there 



FENCING. 



79 



surpassed all who opposed him, as well in learning as in feats of 
military prowess. In 1582 he held a solemn disputation before the 
University of Padua, and maintained the contest for six hours, 
arguing with the most talented professors. At Mantua, he killed 
in a duel one of the most experienced fencing masters in Europe, 
and was appointed by the Duke of Mantua to be preceptor to his 
son Vincenzo Gonzaga. One night, during the carnival, as he was 
proceeding leisurely along playing upon his guitar, he was suddenly 
attacked by six men wearing masks. Throwing down his instru- 
ment, he drew his rapier and stood on the defensive, and that with 
such ability, that he speedily killed or put to flight all but the leader, 
whom he disarmed. The foiled assassin instantly took off his mask, 
and begged Crichton to spare his life, exclaiming that he was his 
pupil, Yincenzo ; Crichton recognised him immediately, fell down 
on his knees, and told him he was sorry for his mistake; but 
that he had done no more than stand in his own defence, and that if 
he had any wish to take his life, he might always be master of it ; 
he then took hold of his blade by the point, and presented it to the 
young noble, who being either excited with wine, or chafed at the 
defeat he and his hired bravoes had sustained, took it, and imme- 
diately stabbed him to the heart. 

FENCING. 

The art of fencing is the proper mode of using the small sword, 
and it is learnt with foils, which are quadrangular blades of steel, 
thirty-one inches in length, fastened into plain handles, and tipped 
at the point with a brass button ; that part of the blade from the 
handle to the middle is termed the fort, and from the middle to the 
point the foible. The fencer should wear an iron wire mask to pro- 
tect his face from any accidental thrust, and the wire work of it 
should be tolerably stout. It is a good plan to wear a glove on the 
right hand, padded on the back and fingers, and in academies it is 
usual to attach a piece of cloth, shaped like a heart, on the left 
breast of the waistcoat. The fencer's dress should be very easy, so 
as not to obstruct his movements. 

THE GUAED. 

Place your right heel close 
to the middle of the left foot, 
and draw your foil, as if from 
its sheath, and instantly place 
the point directly opposite to 
your adversary's breast, keep- 
ing the arm rather bent, and 
the wrist, with the nails turned 
upwards, somewhat lower than 
the point of the foil, and at 
the same time raise the left 
arm gracefully and freely. 
Next bend both knees until 




80 



FENCING. 



the left knee covers the foot, 
when you must advance the 
right foot, still keeping it in 
a line v/ith the left heel, into 
the position of the guard, as 
shown in the annexed figure. 
In all your movements you 
should keep your eye fixed 
on the tiTist of j'our oppo- 
nent, and not on his eyes. 
Whilst making these intro- 
ductory movements, it is pro- 
per to keep out of the reach of your opponent's blade, in order to 
prevent surprise. 

THE APPEL. 

The appel is made by smartly stamping twice with the right foot, 
taking care that the body is perfectly steady, and that the button ot 
the foil does not swerve out of the direction in which it was at first 
pointed ; practise this movement very often, until you can execute 
it w^ith freedom, and until your position on guard is perfectly firm 
and correct. 

ADVANCING AND KETREATING. 

In advancing, the right foot should be moved about eight or ten 
inches forwards, in a straight line with the left foot, and the latter 
then brought after it, so as always to keep in the position of the 
guard. In retreating, these movements are of course reversed, the 
left foot must be drawn back, and the right follow it, yet still keep- 
ing in the position of the guard. In making both these motions, 
short steps should be taken, especially when advancing, as you then 
get within the reach of your opponent's weapon, and must therefore 
act cautiously, and keep in such a position that you can parry a 
sudden thrust, or make an attack, if an opportunity presents itself. 

THE LONGE. 

The longe being 
one of the principal 
movements, the pu- 
pil should steadily 
drill himself in it 
until he can per- 
form it with cele- 
rity and exactness. 
Elevate your right 
hand, the nails up- 
ward, and keep the 
point of the foil directed to your opponent's breast ; allow your left 
hand to drop about six inches from the left thigh, the hand open and 
turned outwards, and next straighten the left knee so as to throw 
the body forwards on the right foot. This movement, which is called 





FENCING. 



81 



the extension, being thus completed, the right foot should be ad- 
vanced forwards, as far towards your antagonist as possible, keeping 
in the following position — the right foot planted firmly on the ground, 
in a direct line from your own left heel to j^our opponent's left foot ; 
the body upright, bearing equally on both legs ; the shoulders 
straight, the right thigh nearly horizontal with the ground, and the 
leg — from the knee — quite perpendicular, as shown in the repre- 
sentation. If your foot is too far advanced, or your knee overhangs 
the foot, you have either not longed sufficiently, or else too much, 
and will not be enabled to recover yourself with that adroitness 
which is requisite to defend yourself from any return. In order to 
recover from the longe, it is only necessary to bend the left knee, 
and at the same moment lift up the left arm into the same position 
as when on your guard ; next raise the right foot from the ground and 
throw your body back on the left leg, and as you perform this movement, 
without altering the situation of the point of the foil, drop your wrist 
to its former position, and then put the right foot firmly down, with- 
out moving your body, and place yourself on guard. During these 
movements, carefully keep your foil's point in a straight line with 
your opponent's breast. Longeing and recovering should be very 
often practised, in order to acquire them thoroughly. 

PARADES. 

In fencing, three divisions of the body are reckoned, distinguished 
thus: over the arm, or outside of the blade ; inside of the arm, or 
within the blade ; and under the arm. By the first of these terms 
is meant the whole of the body above the sword arm, between the 
shoulder and the sword ; by the second, the space between the blade 
and the left arm ; and by the last term, that part of the body left 
unguarded from the elbow to the wrist, under the sword arm. For 
the defence of each of these divisions, two simple parades, of which 
there are altogether six, are intended. The six simple parades are 
called quarte, tierce, circle, octave, prime, and quinte ; there are also 
two round, or counter parades, in quarte and tierce. Tierce and 
prime are intended for the outside, quarte and circle for the inside 
divisions of the body, and octave and quinte for the thrusts under 
the arm. 

The parade of tierce is 
to oppose a thrust over the 
arm, so as to throw your 
adversary's point off to the 
right side of your body. It 
is performed by turning your 
nails downward, and oppo- 
sing with the fort of your 
foil the foible of your anta- 
gonist's, and so throwing his 
blade out of the line of your 
body, off to the right side. 




Prime is employed to- 
ward off higher thrusts, and 
is performed by lifting the 
hand to about the height of 
your shoulder, turning the 
nails downward, as in tierce, 
and allowing tlie point of 
the foil to drop very little 
below the level of the wrist 
(as shown in the illustration), 
out of the line of your anta- 
gonist's breast, but pointed 
towards his right side ; by 
this movement your foil 
covers the whole of the upper 
part of your own body. 

The parade of quarte is 
made by opposing the fort of 
your foil to the foible of 
your opponent's, and cross- 
ing your body with your 
blade, so as to throw his 
straight thrust completely 
out of the line of your body 
off to your left side. When 
performing this parade, the 
hand should be turned, so 
that the finger-nails are up- 
ward. 

The parade of CIRCLE dif- 
fers from that of quarte, in 
that your wrist is higher, 
and the point of your blade 
lower, than your opponent's; 
it is therefore chiefly used 
against low thrusts. In this 
IDarade, also, the finger-nails 
should be turned upward. 

In OCTAVE, the wrist and 
foil are kept in the same 
position as in the parade of 
circle, but the movement is 
made on the other side of 
the body, so as to throw off 
all thrusts under the arm ; 
by comparing the annexed 
figures, the difference of the 
movements will be readily 
understood. 



FENCING. 



83 




The parade of QUINTE is 
made from the position of |^ 
prime, by dropping the point 
of the foil, so as to cover the 
body under the arm, by 
throwing the point of yom- 
antagonist's blade out to- 
wards the right side : you 
must keep your wrist in the 
same position as in prime, 
except that the thumb must 
be brought under the hand, 
■with the nails turned out- 
ward. The COUNTER, or eound paeade of quaete, is made from the 
engagement of quarte, when your adversary disengages to the out- 
side of your arm, and is nothing more than performing a small 
circular motion round his foil, and resuming your former position of 
quarte ; it may, however, be used against any of the outside thrusts. 
The COUXTER IN tieece is performed in the same manner, and is 
used to all attacks within the arm. When you purpose making a 
quick return, after your adversary has made an attack, before he 
can recover his guard you must make your parades with a sharp, 
sudden jerk from the wrist, so as to throv/ his blade quite out of the 
line of your body. If, however, you intend to make any feint, after 
performing the parade, in making the parade, merely oppose your 
foil to your antagonist's, so gently that the blades do not quit each 
other, keeping your point in a line with his body, until he comes 
again on guard, and then begin your feint. It being imperatively 
necessary in parrying, that the fort of your foil is opposed to the 
foible of your opponent's, you must take especial care of the position 
of your arm with respect to the proximity of his blade to your body, 
when the weapons cross ; for if his blade comes to within a few 
inches of your body, before you can perform the parade, you must 
draw back your arm so as to enable your blade to have its full effect, 
and prevent his from touching you ; but if your opponent is so far 
from you that you can perform the parade properly, with the arm 
outstretched, it is correct and right that you should do it. 



STEAIGHT THEUSTS, DISENGAGEMENTS, ETC. 

When your opponent, from his attitude on guard, leaves that side 
of the body on which you joined blades, much exposed, a STEAIGHT 
THEUST is often used as an attack. When such an opportunity 
offers itself, you should lift up your wrist with celerity, so as to 
bring the fort of your blade to the foible of your opponent's, and 
instantly longe at his breast, preserving at the same time a proper 
opposition. A straight thrust is also sometimes used as a return, 
and in making this movement, after parrying your antagonist's 
attack, with a quick jerk from the wrist you should dehver your 
return, smartly, with an extension, before he has time to recover his 

g2 



84 



FENCING. 



guard or get his foil into line. When you can hit your opponent 
whilst he is on his longe, you should do it with the extension only. 

Disengagements are performed by passing your foil under your 
opponent's wrist, as he stands on guard. In the parades of circle, 
octave, and quinte, the point of his foil being lower than his wrist, 
your disengagements then must, of course, be over the wrist. 

The CUT OVER THE POINT is another method of disengaging, and is 
commonly performed as a return upon your adversary's pressing 
your blade as he recovers ; it is thus executed : if you make it from 
quarte to tierce^ raise the point of j^our foil very rapidly, by an 
upward motion of your wrist — above that of your opponent's, 
without altering the position of your arm ; from the line of direction 
form your extension, and instantly deliver the thrust in quarte over 
the arm. 

When the blades are joined in quarte, the flanconnade is begun; 
it is performed thus : your wrist should be drawn in so far towards 
your body, that you can with facility oppose the fort of your foil to 
the foible of your opponent's ; then from that position, quickly bind 
your blade over his, and next, without moving it, bring your point 
into a line with your body, and longe, keeping exactly in opposition ; 
this longe is thus in octave. As an attack, flanconnade is used 
against an antagonist, who being in his reach much longer than you 
are yourself, opposes a straight thrust to any longe you may make, 
which mode, although incorrect fencing, would answer his intentions, 
from the superiority of his reach, if you allowed your foil to quit his 
in order to make an attack. After the parade of quarte, if your 
adversary does not recover immediately, but bears on your foil while 
on the longe, or when he recovers with his arm extended, and his 
point in line, then flanconnade should be used, as it would be 
hazardous to quit his foil, to perform a riposte. After the parade of 
circle is performed, when your opponent continues on his longe, or 
recovers, having his arm stretched out, and the point of his foil 
lower than his wrist, you may bind your blade over his, by placing 
your fort to his foible, and so force it, without quitting it, in such a 
manner that you can bring the point into a line with his body on the 
outside of his arm, and then thrust boldly home, making your oppo- 
sition on the outside. Another method of binding the blade is 
performed after the parade of prime ; after making the parade, on 
your adversary giving you full power over his foil, and leaving his 
body unguarded on the outside, turn your wrist from the position of 
prime to that of quarte, and by bringing your point into a line with 
his body over the arm, you make your opposition on the outside, and 
bind his blade. 

By the term ''opposition," in fencing is meant the act of shielding 
your own body on the side on which you deliver a thrust, by so 
carefully opposing your trusty foil to that of your adversary, that 
you throw his point quite out of the line of your breast. 



FENCING. 



85 



FEINTS. 

All kinds of thrusts, strictly speaking, come under the head of 
feints, as in these attacks it is the fencer's aim to deceive his op- 
ponent ; but for convenience, we have followed the plan adopted by 
Mr. Roland,^'' and arranged straight thrusts, disengagements, and 
bindings of the blade, in a separate division. 

The feint one, two, is performed thus : when your foil is joined to 
your opponent's, within the arm, if he has not covered his body 
properly on that side, by a gentle motion make him believe that you 
intend attacking inside the arm. In order to cover himself, he will 
then be compelled to assume the correct position, upon which you 
must disengage, instantly, to the opposite side of his foil, making 
the extension at the same time. Your adversary imagining that 
this feint is meant for a thrust on the outside, will very possibly try 
to make the parade a tierce; some parade he must make, otherwise 
you would finish the longe on the same side; when he turns his wrist 
to form that parade, disengage again under his wrist, and longe 
quickly and correctly within his arm, taking care that his blade does 
not meet yours on the parade of tierce. This feint is performed 
from the engagement of tierce, by making the first disengagement 
inside, and when this is opposed by the parade of quarte, you must 
instantly make another disengagement, and longe quickly on the 
outside, keeping clear of your antagonist's foil in the parade of 
quarte. When you make the feint one, two, from the position of 
circle, in which the point of the foil is held lower than the wrists, 
you delude octave ; and from octave, you deceive circle. 

The cut and disengage, resembles one, two, with the difference 
that the first disengagement of the feint is made as a cut over the 
point of your opponent's foil. In this attack, your adversary's 
point should be higher than his hand, when you begin the feint. 

The feinte seconde, used as a return after the parades of prime, 
tierce, or quinte, also resembles one, two ; in this, the first move- 
ment of the feint should be pointed under your opponent's arm, 
holding your hand as in tierce; and when he answers b}' a move- 
ment in quinte or octave, rapidly turn your wrist to quarte, as you 
disengage, and longe over his arm. 

The feint one, two, three, is performed on either side of the foil, 
in much the same manner as one, two ; the difference being that one 
more disengagement is made in the former than in the latter. 

Doubling is used to deceive your antagonist's counter or round 
parades, and one, two; cut and disengage, one, two, three, the 
simple parades ; it is begun from either side of the foil, when your 
adversary leaves an opening, thus: from an inside position, dis- 
engage and perform an extension over your antagonist's arm ; as he, 
with the counter in quarte, endeavours to ward off this apparent 
thrust, you should a second time disengage round his wrist, to the 
outside, and longe. From an outside engagement of the blades, 
this feint is made on the same principles as from the inside. 



* Introductory Course of Fencing, p. 20, 



86 



FENCING. 



The parades being susceptible of an infinite number of combina- 
tions, the fencer should be enabled to combine the above feints, to 
meet the simple and counter parades which are frequently joined 
in defence. 

Ti:\IE THRUSTS m OPPOSITION. 

These thrusts require p^reat judgment and skill, as all your move- 
ments must be made at the exact instant of time at which your oppo- 
nent makes his attack. When you take time thrusts in opposition — 
that is, when the blades cross each other — it is essentially necessary 
that you fully understand what attack your adversary intends to make 
upon you, as you must make the various parades he wishes to deceive, 
and take the time thrust upon his last disengagement and longe. 
There are two time thrusts in opposition — i.e., the time over the 
arm, and the time in octave. The first of these is applied to all kinds 
of thrusts where the longe is performed on the outside; and the 
second is used when the longe is made to the inside of the body, or 
under the arm. Thus all thrusts yield an opportunity for the per- 
formance of these two motions. When your opponent's disengage- 
ment ended inside the arm, your time movement will be only 
crossing his foil in quarte, and then continuing the same motion, 
dropping your point to octave; when the thrust ends under the 
arm, you must oppose your fort to his foible, and keep in the posi- 
tion of octave. When the attack terminates by a thrust over the 
arm, the outside time thrust should be performed. On a simple 
disengagement from the inside, the time thrust is thus made ; when 
your opponent quits your foil to make an attack, you must instantly 
alter your position from the in to the outside, and keep your hand in 
quarte ; as he finishes his attack, you, without altering the position 
of your wrist, oppose the fort of your foil to the foible of his, pre- 
serving your point in a line with his body over the arm ; if, there- 
fore, he makes his thrust well home, to make him longe upon your 
point it is only necessary for you to extend your arm and keep 
your position. In this manner, all time thrusts are taken, pre- 
supposing that the preparatory feints are correctly answered ; as for 
example, we will imagine that your opponent tries to make the feint 
one, two, three, on the outside, you should return his feint one by 
the parade of quarte, and upon his second movement, take your time 
thrust over the arm ; suppose he endeavours to double from the out- 
side, which movement you parry with the counter in tierce on his 
first disengagement, and he avoids that by doubling, as he makes the 
last movement, you take time in octave. 

Time thrusts are decidedly the most scientific motions in fencing; 
they require much calculation and thought as to the proper time for 
taking them, and also great precision in their execution ; generally 
speaking, time thrusts in opposition require only an extension of 
the arm and body ; but if your opponent makes his attack at too 
great a distance, then you will find that a longe is necessary on 
your part, which you must make at the instant he executes his 
thrust. Both persons thus longe at the same moment, but your 



FENCING. 



:87 



opposition should be so correctly made, that his foil should be 
thrust out of the line of your breast, and your own point take its 
full intended effect on his body. 

TIME THKUSTS OUT OF OPPOSITION, 

When your antagonist makes incorrect movements, disengages too 
frequently whilst executing his feints, attacks too widely, or care- 
lessly exposes himself by giving unnecessary openings, then the 
TIME THKUSTS OUT OF OPPOSITION should be employed. In making 
them, a longe is always essential, as they must be executed during 
your adversary's feints, and not upon the last disengagement, as in 
the thrusts in opposition. 

As these thrusts are only practised against irregular attacks, it is 
impossible for us to give more than a very few general rules for them ; 
if your opponent advances in making a feint, in which he quits your 
blade, he at once exposes himself to this thrust, which you should 
use at the exact instant he comes forward, else it would be a 
hazardous attempt, and of course ought not to be tried. If your 
jintagonist quits your blade, after parrying one of your attacks, in 
order to execute a feint before you can recover your guard, by way 
of retaliation for your attpvck, he leaves an opening for you to employ 
a time thrust. Indeed, this thrust may be used in all wide or in- 
correct attacks, where the point of your adversary's foil is so far out 
of the line of your body, that there is no fear of a touch by it in the 
way of exchange ; for if otherwise, it would not be worth w^hile to 
try the experiment. If the point of your opponent's foil touches you 
whilst you are executing a time thrust, whether it be in or out of 
opposition, rely upon it that your movements must have been ex- 
tremely ill-timed, or else performed in a slovenly style; and although 
both thrusts may take effect, his only, according to the strict rules 
of fencing, can be accounted good. 




QUAETE AND TIERCE, ETC. 

Quarte and tierce, counters, and longeing at all feints, are exercises 
intended to place the tyro in fencing well on his feet, and to teach 
him to measure his distances with accuracy, and to make his move- 



88 



FENCING. 



ments in the proper order of succession. In quarte and tierce you 
measure your distance by making a full longe at your adversary's left 
side, and after which you should both perform a short salute, thus : 
You must place yourself on guard, and engage your opponent's blade 
on the outside, and request him, by way of compliment, to make a 
thrust at you ; then lower the point of your foil, by turning your 
nails downwards with a circular movement, and draw your right foot 
up behind your left. Next raise your right arm, and with the left 
hand take your cap off with as much grace and elegance as you can ; 
then perform a circular movement with your wrist, with the nails 
upward, while you plant your right foot forwards, making the proper 
extension. Your antagonist must perform the same movements, 
keeping exact time with you, making, however, a complete longe, 
instead of the extension, as if he intended thrusting quarte inside ; 
his point, therefore, is presented at a little distance from your body, 
while you remain uncovered on the extension. After this salute, he 
makes about a dozen disengagements, which you parry alternately 
with quarte and tierce. 

When your antagonist recovers his position after making the longe, 
you also recover by drawing your right foot close up to the left, 
keeping your right hand well stretched forwards, and the left raised 
in a semicircular sweep, as if on guard, with the hat held therein, 
head erect, and the hams stretched out. Your opponent being also 
on guard with his point out of the line of your body, and his breast 
unprotected by it, you take your distance ; the salute is repeated, 
and you attack while he defends. When you in turn push, the 
salute differs in one respect from that described above, in that, 
instead of making the extension and uncovering the body, you make 
the complete longe from the first position of the right foot behind 
in quarte, then recover to the second position by bringing the 
right heel close to the left, and finish by performing the other 
movements. It is the person longeing who determines when the 
practice is to conclude. 

If after making these movements you make an assault, you should 
take your masks, and holding them in the left hand, perform the 
fencing salute, thus : On the engagement of tierce make two smart 
appels with the right foot, then bring it close up behind the left, and 
at the same time raise and stretch your right arm, with the nails 
upward, and drop the point of your foil, holding the mask in the left 
hand stretched down near the flank. Next make a circular motion 
of the wrist, as if forming the counter in tierce, and throw your left 
foot backwards to the distance of your common guard, raise your left 
hand, and make two other appels ; then bring your left foot forward 
to its former place, before the right, stretch your arm, with the nails 
upward, as before, and gracefully perform the parades of quarte and 
tierce ; make a circular motion with the wrist, advance the right foot 
to your original guard, and put on your mask. The movements in 
this salute must be performed with more sprightliness than in the 
one before quarte and tierce, and the most exact time should be kept 
with your adversary's actions. 



FENCING. 



89 



Counters is an exercise restricted to the fencing- room, being only 
for mutual instruction. It is commenced without a salute, by your 
adversary and yourself taking your positions on guard, with the foils 
joined in quarte; bear his point out of the line of your body, he will 
then disengage and longe over your arm, which thrust you must 
parry by the counter in quarte, and keep well in your position ; after 
remaining on the longe for a short time, your opponent will recover 
his guard, and in doing so, throw your foil out of the line of his 
body; you then instantly perform a disengagement, and this move- 
ment he must parry by the counter in quarte ; you continue thus 
parrying and disengaging alternately with your opponent, until you 
can execute the movements correctly. After making several alter- 
nate disengagements, you may deceive the counter in quarte, by 
doubling on your opponent, without giving him notice of your inten- 
tion; he having missed the blade in the counter to quarte, will 
follow it to the parade of tierce ; from this parade, when you press 
his foil out of the line of tierce, he disengages to the inside ; this you 
must parry by the parade of quarte, which will bring your blades 
into the right position for continuing the practice. The counters 
also be commenced from the engagement of tierce, according 
to the same rules. 

All feints is another preparatory exercise practised before 
making the assault. This consists in one party keeping on the 
position of guard, and defending himself from the attacks of his 
antagonist, who is not allowed to repeat any thrust on the longe, but 
must recover after every such longe. The person standing on guard 
must not make any return. 




THE ASSAULT. 

"When you enter upon the assault, pay great attention to the best 
method of getting into position on guard, as you may have an an- 
tagonist to contend with who is ever ready to take advantage of all 
openings ; it is therefore, perhaps, better that he should take his 
position first, so that you may engage his blade out of measure in 
quarte, and thus prepare your defence before you come on guard. 
In taking your position, always endeavour to command on either 



90 



FENCING. 



engagement the foible of your antagonist's foil with the fort of your 
own, as by so doing you press his point out of the line of your body, 
and thereby uncover his body as much as you cover, or guard, your 
own ; this advantage, added to the power your fort has over his 
foible, will most probably allow you to deliver a straight thrust, 
which, as you are not necessitated to quit his blade while performing 
it, is one of the best attacks in fencing. If you are beyond the range 
of your adversary's longe, the command you possess over his foil 
will compel him to make an alteration in your relative positions, 
before he tries to get within distance, and this motion will probably 
allow you to make an attack ; but if he should advance without 
altering your jDosition, you must then make your straight thrust on 
his advance. It is of great importance to make straight thrusts 
and simple disengagements frequently ; for unless you sometimes 
use simple thrusts as attacks, your antagonist will not answer them 
when you employ them as feints, since he will quickly see that they are 
intended only as such ; these instructions should be very carefully 
attended to when you fence with a stranger, whose mode of defence 
or favourite attacks you are unacquainted with. 

A few simple lessons will explain the method of attack and defence, 
we therefore add them : when the blades are joined on the inside, 
A presses the blade to cover his body, on which B disengages over 
the arm ; A parries this disengagement by tierce, and immediately 
thrusts seconde with an extension, — these thrusts made only with the 
extension should be performed before the opponent can recover after 
his attack, — and B as quickly defends himself from this thrust in 
seconde, by performing the parades either of octave or quinte, as he 
is recovering. When the blades are joined on the outside, A presses 
the blade, and B disengages to the inside ; A parries by quarte, 
making it with a rapid movement of the wrist, and instantly returns 
a straight thrust with an extension, which B recovering from in- 
stantly, parries by the parade of quarte. From the inside, A makes 
feint one, two, when B parries the thrust by simple quarte, and as 
the former recovers, pressing B's foil out of the line, the latter makes 
the cut over the point, on which A executes feint one, two, three ; 
B parries the thrust with tierce, and as A recovers, makes feint 
seconde ; A disengages over the arm, B parries with the counter in 
quarte ; A doubles over the arm, B parries that with tierce, and 
when A recovers, makes feint seconde. A then doubles and returns 
inside, which B parries by quarte, and as A recovers, throwing B's 
foil out of the line, the latter cuts over the point, and instantly 
disengages. The three latter movements may be used from the out- 
side engagements also, the defending party using the necessary 
parades and ripostes, which of course difi'er from those we have just 
described. 

If A endeavours to change the engagement from the outside to 
the inside, on quarte, B must disengage to the outside, while A is 
bringing his foil to quarte. A then retreats, on which B advances, 
keeping his wrist low, and at that precise moment A seizes the foible 
of B's blade with the fort of his own, and longes straight over his 



FENCING. 



91 



;arm. Whenever your opponent endeavours to change the engagement, 
from either the outside or the inside, it will give you an excellent 
opportunity for using any of the preceding feints. When A changes 
the engagement inside from quarte to tierce, and retreats a step, 
keeping his point well in line, B, in trying to take advantage, will 
afford him several opportunities of making an attack ; thus, if B 
steps forward to regain his distance, and yet allows A to keep his 
advantage of position, A must catch with the fort of his weapon 
the foible of B's, and by elevating his wrist, longe straight over the 
-arm ; or if B, endeavouring to change from tierce to quarte, strives 
to regain his former position, A will have an admirable opening for 
commencing the feint one, two, on the inside, but he must take 
the exact time, or else he will lose all the advantage of it. When 
retreating and changing the engagement from tierce to quarte, simi- 
lar opportunities of attack will occur. If B, however, can penetrate 
A's designs in thus shifting his position, he may oppose and turn the 
movements to his own advantage, thus : when the blades are joined 
on the outside, on A's retreating, B must advance, keeping his wrist 
low ; A then advances, and longes straight over the arm ; this move 
B parries by prime, or else high tierce, and quietly returns in seconde. 
If the blades are joined on the inside, on A's presenting his point to 
B's breast, as he advances B presses it out of line in quarte, so as to 
make an opening for A to make feint one, two, inside ; and as he 
does so, B watches the last disengagement and executes a time 
thrust in octave.* 

DISARMING. 

Disarming is a trick which no person who wishes to be considered 
a complete fencer should attempt to perform ; indeed, it is a 
manoeuvre only adapted for the foils ; for if a person were engaged 
in a serious encounter, he would take the precaution to fasten the 
sword-knot firmly round his wrist, and of course all attempts to 
disarm him would then be rendered abortive. 

CONCLUDING OBSEEVATIONS. 

As our limits forbid us to give more than a very brief and general, 
yet we trust explicit sketch of this noble art, we now beg our readers' 
careful perusal of our concluding remarks. Hits are reckoned good 
on the right side only, from the waistband to the neck ; on the right 
arm they are not allowed. Ifc may, at first sight, appear singular 
that the thrusts should be confined to so small a portion of the body, 
as it is equally vulnerable on the other side, but the regulation was 
formed to make it imperatively necessary to use great skill in 
handling the weapons, and in fixing the points. When both parties 
accidentally make mutual thrusts, or as they are termed, "coups 
fourres," they are not reckoned good, unless one fails in fixing his 
point ; and in that case, the one taking effect is counted. If your 

* For the above modes of attack and defence, and for several other particulars, 
we are indebted to Mr. Roland's " Introductory Course of Fencing," an exceedingly 
clever and well-written work. 



92 



FENCING-. 



opponent, when you make an attack, finds that he is unable to ward 
ofi" your thrust, and so intentionally makes a mutual thrust, then 
his movement must not be reckoned, even if your point does not 
take effect. If you happen to make a thrust directly after your 
adversary has lost the grasp of his foil, it is reckoned a fair hit ; 
but if you perceived his misfortune before you delivered your thrust, 
then it is a dishonourable and unfair hit, and of course cannot be 
counted. It is unfair to employ the left hand as a cover to the right 
side of the body, or for parrying a thrust, and is not permitted in 
assaults. Always endeavour to penetrate into all your opponent's 
plans, both of attack and defence, and form yours accordingly, as 
fencing does not so much require dexterity of movement as a com- 
plete knowledge of all the resources of the art, and the best method 
of employing them. In the assault, the feel of the blade is of m^ore 
importance than quickness of sight, for by it the fencer can ascertain 
whether his adversary is about to attack, and also on what parade 
he purposes answering the first movements of the feints. Quickness 
of sight is certainly extremely advantageous to the fencer, and not 
to be thought lightly of, but both it and the feel of the blade are 
inferior to a correct and decided judgment in point of utility. Vary 
your parades as much as possible, so that your opponent may not 
ascertain your favourites, for even if you are a good fencer, if you 
frequently use one parade in preference to another, you may be 
defeated with more ease than you would probably like to acknow- 
ledge. 

At all times perform your fencing exercises with precision and 
gracefulness, and never behave harshly to your opponent, neither 
exhibit angry feelings when you are vanquished, for your defeat 
may in all probability be ascribed to your own negligence, and not 
to any superiority in point of skill on the part of your antagonist ; 
nor when victorious, show your joy by exulting over your crest- 
fallen opponent, but remember that you should "always do unto 
others as you would they should do unto you," and that forbearance 
to the conquered is not the proof of a weak, but of a noble mind. 



93 



BEOADSWORD. 

The principal distinction between the broadsword and the rapier 
is, that the latter is formed only for thrusting, while the former is 
adapted for cutting also. Indeed, those who use the broadsword are, 
in my opinion, too apt to neglect the use of the point, and to give 
their attention almost exclusively to the cuts. 

The first lesson in the sword exercise is necessarily to know how to 
stand. The learner should be instructed to perform the different 
movements by word of command, remembering to consider the first 
parts of the word as a caution, and not to stir until the last syllable is 
uttered. At the last syllable, the movement should be performed 
smartly. In giving the word, the instructor always makes a slight 
pause, in order to give his pupils time to remember what they must 

do. For example, the words Draw Swords is given thus, Draw 

Swords — the word swords being spoken smartly, in order that the 
movement may correspond. 

POSITIONS. 

Fh'st Position. • — Make the target* about fourteen inches in diameter, 
and place it on the wall, having its centre about four feet from the 
ground. Draw a perpendicular line from the spot at the bottom of 
the target to the ground, and continue it on the floor, in order to 
ensure the proper position of the heels. The learner stands perfectly 
upright opposite the target, with his right side towards it, his heels 
close together, his right toe pointing to the target, and his left foot 
at right angles with the right. His arms must be clasped behind his 
back, his right palm supporting the left elbow, and his left hand 
grasping the right arm just above the elbow. In this position he 
must bend both knees and sink down as far as possible. This will 
not be very far at first, but he will soon sink down quite easily. See 
accompanying figure (1). 

Second Position. — This is accomplished by placing the right foot 
smartly in front, about sixteen or fourteen inches before the left. 
See 2. He must accustom himself to balance himself so perfectly 
on his left foot, that he can place the right either before or behind it, 
without losing his balance. 

Third Position. — The third position must then be learned. This 
consists in stepping well forward with the right foot, until the left 
knee is quite straight, and the right knee exactly perpendicularly 
placed over the right foot. Great care must be taken to keep the 



* For target, see next page. 



94 BKOADSWOED. 

heels exactly in the same line, and the body perfectly upright. See- 
figure (3). 




Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 



These preliminaries having been settled, the learner stands upright 
before the target, as in 1. A sword is then put into his hand, and 
the target is explained as follows : — 

TARGET. 

The interior lines represent the cuts. Cut one being directed from 
No. 1 diagonally through the target, coming out at 4. Cut two is the 



BEOADSWOED. 



95 



same, only from left to right. Three is made upwards diagonally, and 
four is the same, only in the opposite direction. Cut five is horizon- 
tally through the target, from right to left, and six from left to right. 
Cut seven is perpendicularly downwards. Care must be taken that 
the cuts are fairly given with the edge. 

The swords drawn on the target represent the guards. The 
seventh guard ought, however, not to be made directly across, but 
must have the point directed rather forwards and downwards, as a. 
cut 7 glides off the blade, and can be instantly answered either by a. 
thrust or by cut 1, 

The two dark circles represent the places where the thrusts take 
effect. 

The learner begins by taking the sword in his right hand, having 
its edge toward the target and its back resting on his shoulder. His 



right arm is bent at right angles, and the elbow against his side. The 
left hand must rest upon the hip, the thumb being to the rear. At 
the word — 



Cut 1. — The young swordsman extends his right arm, and makes 
the cut clear through the target. When the point has cleared the 
target, continue the sweep of the sword, and by a turn of the wrist 
bring it with its back on the left shoulder, its edge towards the left. 
The arm is then ready for 

Cut 2. — Bring the sword from 2 to 3, continue the movement of 
the sword, and turn the wrist so that the point is below the right hip 
and the edge towards the ground. 

Cut 3. — Cut through the target diagonally, bringing the sword 




Cuts and Guaeds. 



CUTS. 



96 



BEOADSWOED. 



from No. 3 to No. 2, and bring the sword onwards, so that it rests 
with the edge downwards, and points below the left hip. At 

Cut 4. — Cut from 4 to 1, and bring the sword round until its point 
is over the right shoulder, and its edge well to the right. 

Cut 5. — At the word Five, make a horizontal cut from 5 to 6, and 
sweep the sword round until it rests on the left shoulder, with its 
edge to the left, and its point well over the shoulder. 

Cut 6. — Cut horizontally through the target, from 6 to 5, and bring 
the sword over the head, with its edge upwards, and its point hanging 
over the back. From this position, — 

Cut 7, — Make a downward stroke until the sword reaches the 
centre of the target. Arrest it there, and remain with the arm 
extended, waiting for the word 



First Point. — Draw back the sword until the right wrist is against 
the right temple, the edge of the sword being upwards. Make a 
slight pause, and then thrust smartly forward towards the centre of 
the target, raising the right wrist as high as No. 1, and pressing the 
left shoulder well back. 



Second Point. — Turn the wrist round to the left, so that the edge 
comes upwards, draw the hand back until it rests on the breast, and 
give the point forwards, to the centre of the target, raising the hand 
as before. 

Third Point. — Give the handle of the sword a slight twist in the 
hand to the right, so that the edge again comes uppermost, and the 
guard rests against the back of the hand. Draw back the hand 
until it rests against the right hip, and deliver it forwards towards 



POINTS. 




PIEST POINT. 



SECOND POINT. 



BEOADSWOED. 



97 



the spot at the bottom of the target, 
raising the wrist as high as the spot in 
the centre. The object in raising the 
wrist is to deceive the eye of the oppo- 
nent, who will be more likely to notice 
the position of your wrist than of your 
point. In all the thrusts, the left shoulder 
sliould be rather brought forward before 
the point is given, and pressed well back 
while it is being delivered. 

GUAEDS. 

Wait after the third point has been 
delivered for the word 

Defend. — At this word draw up the 
hand smartly, and form the first guard. 
Make the other guards in succession as 
they are named, while the instructor 
proves their accuracy by giving the cor- 
responding cuts. The guards must be 
learned from the target, by placing the sword in exactly the same 
position as those delineated. The guards are these : — 

A First guard, E Fifth. 

B Second. F Sixth. 

C Third. G Seventh. 

D Fourth. 

The two spots H and i mark the places towards which the points 
are made, H for the first and second point, i for the third, 

PAREY. 

The parry or parade of a thrust is executed with the back of the 
sword. The firmest way of parrying is to hold the sword perpen- 
dicular, with its edge to the right and its hilt about the height of and 
close to the right shoulder ; then, by sweeping the sword round from 
left to right, any thrust within its sweep is thrown wide of the body. 

The parry is executed with the wrist and not with the arm, which 
must not move. 

HANGING GUARD. 

When the pupil is acquainted with both cuts and guards, he should 
learn the hanging guard, a most useful position, as it keeps the body 
well hidden under the sword, and at the same time leaves the sword 
in a good position to strike or thrust. 

It is accomplished in the following way. Step out to the second 
position, as in Figure 2, raise the arm until the hand is just over the 
right foot, and as high as the head. The edge of the sword is up- 
wards, and the point is directed downwards and towards the left. 
The left shoulder is pressed rather forward, and the neck and^chest 
drawn inward. 

H 




THIED POIIfT. 



98 



BEOADSWOED. 



In this position the swordsman is enabled to receive or make an 
attack as he may think fit. It is rather fatiguing at first, owing to 
the unaccustomed position of the arm and head ; but the fatigue is 
soon overcome, and then it will be found that there is no attitude 
which gives equal advantages. 




HANGING GUAED. 



There are two other modes of standing on guard, each possessing 
ih^ir peculiar advantages. These are, the inside and outside guard. 
The inside guard is made as follows : — 

INSIDE GUAKD. 

Stand in the second position, having the wrist of the right hand 
nearly as low as the waist, the hand being exactly over the right foot. 
The point of the sword is raised as high as the eyes, and the edge is 
turned inwards, as will be seen from the accompanying engraving. 




INSIDE GtJABD. 



BEOADSWOED. 



99 



OUTSIDE GUARD. 

The outside guard is formed in the same manner as the inside, 
^ith the exception that the edge of the sword is turned well out- 
wards. 




OUTSIDE GUARD. 



To get to the hanging guard, the words are given as follows : — 
inside guard — outside guard — guard. 



ATTACK AND DEFENCE. 



The swordsman having learned thus far, is taught to combine the 
three movements of striking, thrusting, and guarding by the fol- 
lowing exercise : — 

19. Second Point. [Pre- 
pare for it in First Posi- 
tion.] Two. [Thrust in 
Third Position/] 

20. Third Point. [Pre- 
pare.] Two. [Thrust.] 

21. Parry. [Prepare to 
parry in First Position.] 
Two. [Parry.] 

22. Guard. 



1. Inside Guard. 

2. Outside Guard. 

3. Guard. 

4. Cut One. 

5. First Guard. 

6. Cut Two. 

7. Second Guard. 

8. Cut Three. 

9. Third Guard. 

10. Cut Four. 

11. Fourth Guard. 



12. Cut Five. 

13. Fifth Guard. 

14. Cut Six. 

15. Sixth Guard. 

16. Cut Seven. 

17. Seventh Guard. 

18. First Point. [Pre- 
pare for the point in 
First Position.] Two. 
[Thrust in Third Posi- 
tion.] 



The young swordsman must remember that in this, as in all the 
exercises, the cuts and points must be given in the third position, as 
in the accompanying illustration, which shows the swordsman just 
as he has delivered the seventh cut, and is waiting for the next word 
before he resumes the first position. 

H 2 



lOO 



BEOADSWOED. 




SEVEN-TH CUT. 

The guards, on the contrary, are given in the first position, as i& 
seen in the figure on p. 101, which illustrates the seventh guard. 

These exercises are always learned with the single- stick, orbasket- 
hilted cudgel, in order to avoid the dangers which would be in- 
evitable if the sword were used. But as the single-stick is only an 
imitation of the sword, I will give the method of getting the sword 
out of the sheath into any position required. 

DEAW SWOEDS. 

The first word of command is draw swords. At the word drav:, 
seize the sheath just below the hilt, with the left hand, and raise the 
hilt as high as the hip, at the same time grasping the hilt with the 
right hand, turning the edge of the sword to the rear, and drawing- 
it partially from the sheath, to ensure its easy removal. 

At the word swords, draw the blade smartly out of the scabbard, 
throwing the point upwards, at the full extent of the arm, the edge 
being still to the rear. 

EECOVEE SWOEDS. 

The wrist is now smartly lowered until it is level with the chin, 
the blade upright, and the edge to the left. This is the position of 
recover swords. The elbow must be kept close to the body, as in 
the cut. 

CAEEY SWOEDS. 

The wrist is now sharply lowered until the arm hangs at its fulT 
length, the wrist being in the line with the hip, the edge of the- 
sword to the front, and its back resting in the hollow of the shoulder, 
the fingers lightly holding the hilt. The left hand hangs at the side 
until the word inside guard, when it is placed on the left hip. 



BROADSWORD. 



101 




-SEVEK-TH GUASD. EECOVEE SWOEDS. 



SLOPE SWORDS. 

At the word swords, raise the right hand smartly, until it forms a 
right angle at the elbow. 

RETURN SWORDS. 

At the word, raise the blade until it is perpendicular, move the 
hilt to the hollow of the left shoulder, drop the point of the sword 
into the scabbard (which has been grasped by the left hand and 
slightly raised), at the same time turning the edge to the rear. 
Pause an instant, and send the sword smartly into the sheath, 
removing both hands as the hilt strikes against the mouth of the 
scabbard: drop them to the side, with the palms outwards, and 
stand in the first position. 

PRACTICES. 

There are many exercises with the broadsword, called Practices. 
I have given one of them, which is to be practised alone ; but when 
the pupil has attained some confidence in the use of his weapon, he 
must be placed opposite another pupil, and they must go through 
them, each taking the attack and defence in turn. 

The young swordsman must be provided with a very stout wire 
mask, which defends the face and part of the neck, and which should 
be worked in a kind of helmet above, to guard against the disastrous 



102 



BEOADSWOED. 



consequences of receiving the seventh guard. No practices, loose or 
otherwise, should be permitted without the masks, as neither party 
would be able to cut or thrust with proper confidence. 

SECOND PKACTICE. 

This is very useful in teaching the point and parry, as well as 
giving steadiness on the feet. Two boys are placed opposite each 
other, at just such a distance that when perfectly erect they can 
touch the hilt of their adversary's sword with the point of their own. 

The one who gives the first point is called Front Rank (there may 
be a dozen in each rank, each having tried the distance to his right 
by extending his sword), and the one who gives first parry is called 
Rear Rank. 



WOED OF COMMAND. FEONT -RAH^K, 

Guard. Hanging Guard. 



EEAE BANK. 



Hanging Guard. 

Third Point. Prepare to give Third Point. Prepare to Parry. 

rGive Third Point, and when parried,*^ Parry Third Point,. 
Point. < spring back to First Position, and pre- > and prepare to give 

L pare to parry. ) Third Point. 

PAiTi+ 5" Parry Third Point, and prepare for 7 Give Third Point and 

jroini. ^ Third Point. i prepare to Parry. 

Point, &e. &c. 

This should be continued until both are weary. Both swordsmen 
should learn to do it more rapidly every time they practise. Next 
time of going through it, front rank and rear rank change places, as 
they must do in all the practices. 



WOSD OF COMMAND. 

Guard. 
Leg. 

Inside Guard. 
Leg. 

Outside Guard. 

Leg. 

Guard. 

Slope Swords. 



THIRD PEACTICE. 
FEONT BANK, 

Hanging Guard. 
Cut Four. 
Inside Guard. 
Cut Six [at Leg]. 
Outside Guard. 
Cut Five [at Leg]. 
Hanging Guard. 
Slope Swords. 



EEAE EANK. 

Hanging Guard. 
Cut Seven. 
Inside Guard. 
Cut Six [at Jfeck]. 
Outside Guard. 
Cut Five [at Neck]. 
Hanging Guard. 
Slope Swords. 



In this and the other practices, the cuts must be delivered hi the- 
third position, and the guards in the first. In the third and fourth 
practices, the cuts must be given lightly, as many of them are not 
intended to be guarded, but merely to show the powers of the sword, 
in various positions. 

EOUETH PEACTICE. 



WOED OF COMMAND. 

Guard. 

Head. 

Head. 

Leg. 

Leg. 

Head. 

Head. 

Guard. 

Slope Swords. 



FEONT EANK. 

Hanging Guard. 
Seventh Cut. 
Seventh Guard. 
Fourth Cut. 
Seventh Guard. 
Seventh Cut. 
Seventh Guard. 
Hangmg Guard. 
Slope Swords. 



EEAE EANK. 

Hanging Guard. 
Seventh Guard. 
Cut Seven. 
Seventh Guard. 
Fourth Cut. 
Seventh Guard. 
Seventh Cut. 
Hanging Guard. 
Slope Swords. 



BROADSWORD. 



103 



In this and the preceding exercise, the power of shifting the leg 
is shown. If two swordsmen attack each other, and No. 1 strikes 
at the leg of No. 2, it will be better for JSTo. 2 not to oppose the cut 
by the third or fourth guard, but to draw back the leg smartly, and 
cut six or seven at the adversary's head or neck. 

In loose play, as it is called, i.e., when two parties engage with 
swords without following any word of command, but strike and guard 
as they can, both players stand in the second position, because they 
can either advance or retreat as they choose, and can longe out to the 
third position for a thrust or a cut, or spring up to the first position 
for a guard with equal ease. ^^^^^^ 

It is often a kind of trap to put the right leg more forward than 
■usual, in order to induce the adversary to make a cut at it. When 
he does so, the leg is drawn back, the stroke passes harmless, and 
the deceived striker gets the stick of his opponent on his head or 
shoulders. 

We now come to a very complicated exercise, called the 



PIFTH PKACTICE. 



I2D OF COMMATfD. 


TEONT EANK. 


EEAR EAirK. 


Draw Swords. 


Draw Swords. 


Draw Swords. 


Inside Guard. 


Inside Guard. 


Inside Guard. 


Outside Guard. 


Outside Guard. 


Outside Guard. 


Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Cut. 


Seventh Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Guard. 


Seventh Cut. 


Arm. 


Second Cut [at Arm J. 


Second Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Guard. 


Seventh Cut. 


Head. 


Seventh Cut. 


Seventh Guard. 


Arm. 


Second Guard. 


Second Cut [at Arm]. 


Head. 


Seventh Cut. 


Seventh Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Guard. 


Seventh Cut. 


Right Side. 


Sixth Cut. 


Sixth Guard. 


Head. 


Seventh Guard. 


Seventh Cut. 


Head. 


Seventh Cut. 


Seventh Guard. 


Right Side. 


Sixth Guard. 


Sixth Cut. 


Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 


Hanging Guard. 



This practice is capital exercise, and looks very imposing. ^All 
these practices ought to be so familiar, that the words of command 
are not needed, the only word required being First, Second, or Third 
Practices, as the case may be. 

I remember once that two of my pupils had attained such a mastery 
of their weapons, that we used often to go through the practices 
with real swords. On one occasion we were acting a charade, and 
my eldest pupil and myself were enacting the part of two distinguished 
foreigners (country unknown), who were to get up a fight. So we 
began by a little quarrel, and finally drew our swords and set hard to 
v/ork at the fifth practice, which we could do with extreme rapidity, 
and without the use of words of command. The spectators were 
horrified, and the ladies greatly alarmed ; for there seems to be no 
particular order in that practice, and an inexperienced eye would 
certainly fancy that the combatants were in earnest. 



104 



BROADSWORD. 



FORT AND FEEBLE. 

The half of the sword blade next the hilt is called the ''fort," be- 
cause it is the strongest place on which the cut of an adversary can 
be received. Always parry and guard with the fort of your sword, 
as, if you try to guard a cut with the "feeble," which is the remain- 
ing half of the blade, your guard will be forced, and the cut take 
effect. 

DRAWING CUT. 

The drawing cutis made best with a curved sword, and is executed 
by placing the edge of the sword on the object, and drawing it over 
it until it is severed. A good large mangel-wurzel is capital practice. 
Place the root loose on a table, stand at arm's length from it, lay the 
edge of the sword lightly on it, and slice the root by repeatedly 
drawing the sword over it. This is very difficult, although it looks 
easy enough, and is sure to jar the arm from the wrist to the shoulder 
the first time or two, while the sword glides off as if the root were 
cased in polished steel. However, a little practice will soon overcome 
the difficulty. This cut is much in use among the Sikhs. 

GENERAL ADVICE. 

Never look at your own sword, but watch the eye and sword 
wrist of your opponent. 

Remember that the great point in this exercise, as in fencing, is 
to gain time. Endeavour, therefore, to advance your point nearer 
your adversary than his is to you, 

Begin the assault out of distance, so that neither party can com- 
plain of being taken by surprise. 

If the two parties exchange a cut or a thrust at the same mo- 
ment, the one who gave his cut or thrust in the third position is 
victorious. 

When a cut or thrust is made, the one who receives it passes his 
sword, i.e., stick, into his left hand, and his opponent comes to in- 
side guard. 

Always spring back to the second position after delivering a cut or 
thrust. 

Keep the line of direction carefully, or you will leave an open 
space for the adversary to get his sword into. 

Last and most important. Don't lose your temper. 




ATTACK AND DEFENCE. 



105 




RIDING. 



*' A very riband in the cap of youtli, 
Yet needful too." 

Shakspeahe. 



" The riders bend 
O'er their arched necks, with steady hand by turns 
Indulge their speed, or moderate their rage/* 

SOMEEVILLE. 

Riding on horseback is generally allowed to be one of the most 
cheerful and enlivening of all exercises, whether for youth or man- 
hood ; and we trust that the following little treatise upon it will prove 
interesting to every boy who has it in his power, or, at least, can 
contrive, to mount a nag. 



106 



MOUXTINO. 




In mounting, the rider should 
place himself rather before the 
horse's shoulder, and turn his 
left side to it ; he must hold his 
whip in his left hand, take hold 
of the centre of the snaffle 
reins with his right hand, and 
pass the middle finger of his left 
hand through them, from before, 
keeping the back of that hand 
toward the horse's head. He 
should next place his left hand 
on the animal's neck, about a 



foot from the saddle, with his right hand draw the reins through his 
left, and shorten them until he has an equal feeling, with the latter 
hand, on the horse's neck, and then with his right hand he should 
throw the end of the reins to the off-side ; with the same hand 
he must next take a lock of the mane, and twist it round his 
left thumb, and then close his left hand on the mane and reins. After 
these movements he takes hold of the left stirrup with his right hand, 
raises his left foot and puts it in the stirrup, turns his face so as to 
look across the saddle, places his right hand on the can tie, presses 
his left knee against the saddle on the girth, and keeps his heels 
back, so as to prevent his toes touching the horse's side ; he next 
takes a spring from his right instep, and raises himself in the stirrup, 
pressing his knees firmly against the saddle, and keeping his heels 
together, yet slightly drawn back. In this position the body must 
be upright, and rather supported by his right hand ; from this atti- 
tude, he moves his right hand from the cantle to the pommel, passes 
his right leg over the horse's quarters to the off-side, presses his right 
knee against the saddle, and his body then comes gently down into it ; 
his right hand, of course, next quits the saddle, and his left, the 
mane. 

The rider being thus mounted, he should hold his left or bridle 
hand, the wrist bent outwards, opposite to, and at three inches from 
his body, and drop his right hand by the side of his thigh, place his 
right foot in the stirrup, unaided by either eye or hand, adjust his 
clothes, then change the whip from his left hand to his right, and 
hold it inclining towards the left ear of the horse. The whip should 
always be carried in the right hand, except when in the act of 
mounting or dismounting. If a groom attends at mounting, he 
must not be allowed to touch the reins, but merely hold that part of 
the bridle which comes down the cheek. In dismounting, the move- 
ments are precisely the same as in mounting, only reversed. 



EIDING. 



THE SEAT AND BALANCE. 

As the body must always 
be in a situation to preserve 
both seat and balance, we 
shall endeavour to make our 
instruction upon these heads 
as explicit as possible. For a 
firm, correct seat, the thighs, 
turned inwards, should rest 
flat upon the sides of the 
saddle without grasping, as 
the weight of the rider will 
give sufficient hold without 
such adventitious aid, which, 
in fact, only lifts the rider out 
of his saddle ; the thighs, however, must be kept so firm that they 
will not roll or move, so as to disturb the horse, or loosen the rider's 
seat ; but if the horse should hesitate to advance, they may then be 
slightly relaxed. The knees must be kept back, and stretched down 
so as to throw the thighs somewhat out of the perpendicular, but no 
hold or gripe should be taken with them, unless the rider has lost all 
other means of holding on ; if the thighs are in their proper position 
in the saddle, the legs and arms will be turned as they should be, 
that is, they will be in a line parallel with the rider's body, close to 
the horse's side, but without touching ; they may, however, some- 
times give an additional aid to the seat, by a grasp with the calves, 
and also assist the aids of the hands in like manner ; the toes should 
be raised, and the heels depressed, and kept from galling the horse's 
side. The body should be held quite erect, and the shoulders kept 
square and thrown back, the chest advanced, and the small of the 
back bent rather forwards. The upper part of the arms must hang- 
perpendicular from the shoulders, close to the hips, and be kept 
steady yet without rigidity, else they destroy the hand. The 
hands should be held with the wrists rounded a little outward, 
about four or five inches apart, in front of the body, the thumbs 
and knuckles pointing towards each other, and the finger nails to 
the body. 

The BALANCE in riding, preserves the body from those inclinations 
or swervings from side to side, which even the ordinary paces of a 
horse occasions ; it acts and corresponds with every movement of 
the animal, and therefore enables the rider to sit so firmly, that 
nothing can shift him from his seat. To explain this very essential 
part of horsemanship, we will just mention, that it is for the rider 
when his horse is working straight and upright on his legs, to keep 
his body in an upright position ; when the animal breaks into a trot, 
to incline his body a little back ; and in the gallop, leap, or any 
violent action of the horse, generally to keep his body back. When 
the horse leans or bends, as he does when turning a corner sharply, 
or galloping round a circle, the rider must incline his body in the 




108 



EIDINa. 



same degree, or else he will lose his balance ; indeed, the art of 
balancing consists in implicitly yielding the body to every movement 
of the horse, and to acquire it properly, the practice on circles is ex- 
tremely useful, working carefully and equally to both hands. The 
rider should never take the least help from the reins in order to pre- 
serve his equilibrium, for the bridle hand should always be kept fixed, 
and the reins held at such a length that they may support the horse, 
but not the rider. 

HOLDING THE REINS. 

In holding the snaffle reins separately, one 
rein is held in each hand, between the third and 
fourth fingers, and out of it over the forefinger, 
where the thumb presses it close down ; this 
method of holding the reins is superior to all 
others, especially for beginners, as a greater 
command is obtained over the horse by it, and 
the aids can be made more than when the reins 
are held in one hand only ; besides w^hich, the 
rider is compelled to sit square and correctly in 
his saddle, and not wrung on one side, as is fre- 
quently the case with those who hold the reins 
in one hand only. If, however, after he has 
made some progress, the learner wishes to try the method of holding 
them in the left hand, he must pass the left rein under his little 
finger, take the right rein under the third finger, keep them both 
smooth through the hand, and let the end of the reins hang over the 
forefinger, and close his thumb firmly upon it. When double bridles 
aroused, it is the best plan to let the curb bridle'lie loose, or be fas- 
tened by a slight knot upon the horse's neck. In adjusting the 
reins, that is, shortening or lengthening them as may be found occa- 
sionally necessary, the superfluous reins which hang over the left 
hand should be taken in the right, and the horse's head be sup- 
ported by that hand ; the left hand should then be passed up and 
down the reins, and thus the rider can adjust them as much as may 
be required. If the horse will not obey one hand, the reins must be 
separated by putting the three first fingers of the right hand over 
the snaffle rein, and taking it between the third and little fingers ; 
the ends of the reins being allowed to hang over the forefingers of 
each hand, and drop down between them. 

THE CORRESPONDENCE. 

When the reins are held in the manner we have described, at such 
a certain length, that if the hand were moved in the slightest degree 
it would rein the horse back, or if the least freedom were allowed to 
the hand, the horse, feeling himself at liberty, would instantly ad- 
vance ; it is called the Correspondence. 

If the hand is held perfectly steady, the fingers will feel at every 
step the horse makes in the trot, a gentle tug at the reins, and this 





EIDIXG. 



109 



tug, through the correspondence, is mutually felt in the horse's 
mouth. This is denominated the Appuy. 

So long as this connexion is kept up between the rider's hand 
and the mouth of the horse, the horse is completely under th^ 
control of the rider, and that so entirely, that he seems to be guided 
by his will rather than his hand ; this is termed the Support. 

Without these three operations, the correspondence, or com- 
munication between the hand and the mouth, the appuy, or 
power of the reins on the mouth, and the support, or aid which 
the hand gives in action, the horse would be under no imme- 
diate control ; in all the manege or united paces they are always 
maintained. 

AIDS. 

The motions of the hand, body, legs, and whip, which are made 
use of in directing the horse, are called aids ; they are also defences 
to the rider by checking the horse when he displays any viciousness, 
or when he attempts to gain the superiority. In making use of the 
aids, it is essentially necessary that the movements of the hand, body 
and legs, should agree, as it frequently happens that the effect is 
lost from want of harmony in the actions. There are five positions, 
or aids of the hand— including the one general one from which the 
other four proceed — employed in directing the movements of the 
horse; the first we have described in treating of the mode of holding 
the reins; the second is a slight relaxation of that position, and 
allows the horse to advance ; the third shortens the right rein 
slightly, and directs the horse to the right ; the fourth shortens the 
left rein, and turns the horse to that side, and the fifth shortens 
both reins, and reins the horse back, or stops him. The aids of the 
body are extremely simple : to aid the second position of the hand, 
the body should be thrown forwards a little ; to the third and fourth, 
positions of the hand, a slight turn of the body to that side to which 
the horse should turn ; and to the fifth position of the hand, the body 
should be slightly thrown backwards, so as to draw the hand gently 
with it. 

The aids of the legs are the following : to aid the second position 
of the hand and compel the horse to advance, the legs should be 
closed ; to the third and fourth position of the hand, the legs should 
be pressed to th?.t side to which the horse must turn, and for the 
aid to the fifth position, the legs should be gently pressed to the 
sides. In making these movements, several degrees of power may 
be employed ; pressing the side is the gentlest motion that can be 
used ; placing the leg rather back, and turning out the toe, is the 
next ; a touch with the calf of the leg is the third in degree ; a 
smart stroke with the leg, keeping the toe up firmly so as to contract 
the muscles, is the fourth ; and a scratch with the spur rowel the 
severest ; this, however, is not resorted to until the legs have been 
laid on without effect. 

The aids of the whip are employed to assist those of the heel ; 
they are slight touches given with it either on the hind quarters or 



110 



RIDING. 



the shoulders. When applied on the near side on the hind quarter, 
the whip is held in the fingers with the lash pointing downwards ; 
and when given across the bridle-hand before, it is held with the 
lash upwards. 

ANIMATIONS, SOOTHINGS, AND CORRECTIONS. 

Animations are given by the hand, legs, whip, and tongue, and 
are used when the horse abates his speed, bears heavily and languidly 
on his bit, or performs his paces in a slovenly manner. The anima- 
tions of the hand and legs are the movements described under the 
liead of the aids ; those of the whip are merely slight taps to urge 
the horse forwards, or if the lash is held upwards, switching it 
into the air, and the animations of the tongue consist in making a 
clacking noise with it, but it must be employed with caution, for if 
given too frequently it loses its efiect. As it is much easier to keep 
up, than to restore, the animation of a horse, it is better to use the 
whip, the leg, the hand, or the tongue, rather before than at the 
time it is absolutely necessary to resort to such means ; the rider 
should therefore endeavour to foresee when an animation will be re- 
quired, and then the slightest movement is generally sufficient. As 
the animations of the legs and whip threaten punishment, the least 
movement of the hand, body, or legs, is usually enough to incite a 
well- trained animal and keep him on the alert ; while to a dull, in- 
active horse, whip and spur will be frequently necessary. Even 
these, however, all potent as they are, lose their efficacy if too often 
applied ; the more the animations are varied the better. A gentle 
movement of the fingers of the bridle hand is an excellent anima- 
tion ; it keeps the horse to his duty, awakens the sensibility of his 
mouth, and retains the correspondence between it and the hand. 

SOOTHINGS. — In order to dispel the fears of the horse, and to en- 
courage him, soft and calm tones of the voice, gentle pattings and 
strokings with the hand, are employed ; these are called soothings. 
All unnecessary restraints either of the body or legs should be relin- 
quished, and the rider should sit with as much ease and freedom as 
he possibly can ; indeed, the perfection of soothing consists in the 
rider sitting so perfectly easy as not to add to the horse's animation, 
and yet so well on guard, that he can execute any of the defences in 
an instant should they be required. 

Corrections. — The rider should, in correcting a horse, endeavour 
to work rather upon the mind than the body of the animal ; those 
-corrections which make him most obedient, and yet at the same 
time dishearten him the least, are not the most severe ; they rather 
check than compel him. The corrections are made either by whip 
and spur, or by keeping the animal under stronger restraint. If 
the horse is sluggish, or will not dash off with alacrity, the rider 
should compel him to go sideways, sometimes to one hand, sometimes 
to the other, and then push forwards. If he is inclined to go for- 
wards too fast, lessen the power of your aids, and make him go 
backwards more or less, according to the spirit he manifests. If he 
is inclined to dispute your authority, walk him straight forwards 



BIDING. 



Ill 



with his head in, and croupe out. In giving corrections with the 
whip, the rider should do them with vigour, applying it behind the 
girth under the belly, or else over the shoulders between the fore- 
legs. If the horse kicks when he feels the touch of the whip on his 
flanks, the rider should immediately repeat it smartly, and if he 
rebels at that, give it still more vigorously. Some horses pay no 
attention to the whip, but fly at the spurs ; others care not for the 
spurs, yet are frightened at the whip. These variations of sensitive- 
ness the rider must attend to, and apply the severest corrector. 

When the whip or spur is given two or three times to an unruly 
horse without effect, the rider must endeavour to find out some 
other means of correcting him. Astley, in his work on the manage- 
ment of horses, observes that * ' too great a degree of indulgence may 
induce the horse to consider that you are afraid of him, and if he 
should once think that you are really so, you will find he will exer- 
cise every means to convince you that he considers himself your 
master, instead of acknowledging, by implicit obedience, that you 
are his ; the rider should, however, endeavour to avoid all quarrels 
with his horse, and use the corrections only when needful." 

VICES. 

When a horse is given to stumbling, rearing, kicking, bolting, 
plunging or shying, or restiveness, the rider must maintain his seat 
as directed in the leaps, and hold the reins separate, and rather 
short, so as by keeping the horse's head up to hinder his kicking or 
rearing ; the rider must keep his body upright, yet pliant, and pre- 
serve his balance by his thighs, and keep his legs close to the horse's 
side, yet not so as to grasp until imperatively necessary . When the 
horse elevates his fore- legs, the breech should be thrust out behind, 
so that the rider is prepared if he rears, and as they come to the 
ground the breech should be slipped under, which enables the rider 
to bring his feet into a jDOsition to hold on, and second his hands in 
taking firm hold. It is rather singular, but certainly fortunate, 
that when a horse is addicted to rearing he seldom kicks, and when 
given to kicking he seldom rears. When the horse displays symp- 
toms of viciousness, the rider should see that the saddle and girths 
do not irritate him, and that the bit, by being too high in his mouth, 
does n ot hurt his lips. 

When the horse stumbles, the rider, by pressing his legs to the 
horse's flanks, and keeping his head up, may afford him instant as- 
sistance. The bridle should, therefore, be held of such a length that 
in case of stumbling the rider could raise the horse's head by main 
strength, and the weight of his body thrown backwards. In using 
this aid it is clear that if the rein is held too long the rider must fall 
backwards as the horse rises ; and if too short, he as certainly will 
be pulled over the horse's head ; a medium length must therefore be 
considered the most proper. By pressing the legs to the horse's 
side, he may be helped up the side of a bank, or compelled to keep 
his haunches under him when going down hill. 

Bearing is the most trying of all vices, as it risks both horse and 



112 



rider's falling backwards. If the horse rises straight up, the rider 
should yield him all the bridle, and at the same time throw his 
body forwards ; the weight of the body thus bearing on the horse's 
shoulders obliges him to come down, and when his feet are nearly^ 
yet not quite on the ground, the spurs should be applied as smartly 
as possible. Another method of curing a propensity to rear, is for 
the rider, when he is aware of the animal's inclination to try this 
manoeuvre, to separate the reins, and as he rises, to slacken one 
hand and turn him round with the othei' ; by this plan, the horse 
being compelled to move one of his hind legs, is thrown off his ba- 
lance, and, of course, comes down on his fore- feet ; he should then 
be twisted round several times, in order to prove that he is not to 
consider himself in the sight of a superior being, which turning, by 
baffling his endeavours, will effectually deter him from rearing to a 
dangerous height. 

Horses inclined to kick, either when they go forward or stand 
still, should be held in closely ; but if they do not attempt to get 
the full mastery over their riders, they may be allowed to go for- 
wards. If the horse strives to get his head down, which would 
enable him to kick so violently as to throw himself, his head must 
be confined close up, which deprives him of his power, and he then 
bolts from all fours. The most efficacious punishment for kicking 
is to twist the horse round two or three times, and this should be 
done to his weak or unguarded side, and it will so astonish him, 
that it will be sure to check any further inclination to dispute on 
his part. When a horse kicks, the rider should incline his body 
backwards. 

If the horse bolts, the rider should not use one regular, continued 
pull, but rather make repeated tugs at the reins until the animal 
takes heed and obeys. Pulling each bridle alternately, generally 
termed sawing the mouth," will also have the desired effect ; but 
the rider must be on his guard, lest the horse by stopping suddenly 
pitches him over his head. 

When plunging, the horse gets his head down, cringes his tail 
between his quarters, raises his back, endeavours to burst his girths 
by inflating his body, and in this position kicks and plunges until 
he can hold his breath no longer. When endeavouring to cure him 
of this vice, the rider should sit firmly whilst he is plunging, and 
take care that the horse, in trying to get his head down, does not 
pull him forwards. As there is no fear of the animal's rearing, it is 
not necessary for the rider to do more than just keep his body 
back, and hold the horse steadily to prevent his throwing himself 
down. 

When a horse dashes to one side, or turns short round, either 
through shjmess or restiveness, the rider must keep his legs near the 
horse's sides, so as to be ready to lay hold on any sudden start, and 
place all his reliance upon the security of that hold, and not on any 
bearing in the stirrups ; he should also gently yield his body to the 
motions of the horse. A horse may be checked when about to 
spring to one side, by his rider's leg being pressed on the side he 



EIDING. 



113 



wishes to fly to, and retaining his head high and straight forward, 
so as to hinder his looking in the direction of the object he shyed 
at. If the horse curvets irregularly, and writhes himself to and 
fro, his head must be turned to one side, or both, alternately, with- 
out letting him get out of his course, whilst the rider's legs should be 
pressed against the opposite side. By these methods he will not be 
able to fly to one side, as the pressure of the leg will prevent that, 
nor to the other, as his head will be turned in that direction, and a 
horse never starts towards the side to which he looks. 

When a horse begins to grow restive, he stops, and turns short 
round, usually to the right, as he thereby attacks his rider on the 
weakest side. If this vice is not very powerfully displayed, the 
best mode that can be adopted is to push the horse on, using the 
whip to urge him forwards ; for the application of the spurs alarms 
a horse, and is likely to make him more restive ; they should there- 
fore be used only in extreme cases. If the horse is determined to 
resist all methods of urging him on, the rider must give it up as a 
hopeless task, adopt some other plan, and make the vice its own 
punishment ; he should therefore turn the horse quite round, so as 
to bring his head again in the proper direction, and instantly apply 
the whip ; and if he turns a second time, turn him round twice or 
thrice, and, before he is prepared to resist it, employ a touch of the 
spur to aid the whip. 

It is an invariable rule, if the horse seems determined to go the 
wrong way, to insist upon his going the right way, and no other; 
and if he will not obey readily, to turn him about and rein him 
backwards, which movement he will answer with great celerity, if 
not inclined to advance. In these quarrels, the rider must be quite 
calm, and see that his horse does not sidle up to a wall, on the pave- 
ment, or against other horses, and instead of pulling the animal's 
head from the wall, or whatever he is sidling too close to, to turn 
his head to the object, and back him completely away. If the horse 
stands stock still, the rider should let him have his own way, and 
not make the slightest efl'ort to urge him on ; when he thus finds 
that it does not provoke his rider, he will speedily move of his own 
accord. The rider must never put himself in a passion with his 
horse, even if the animal is extremely obstinate, and unless the vice 
calls forth all his strength to overcome it, he should not show that 
he is at all disconcerted, by which coolness the horse, finding that his 
master is thoroughly prepared for all his movements, will be quailed, 
and desist from further contention. 



114 



BIDING. 



THE WALK, 

When the rider has shifted the 
whip and taken the reins pro- 
perly, he should press the horse's 
sides with his legs, to induce him 
to proceed slowly forwards in the 
WALK ; the reins should be held 
so as to support the horse's head 
sufficiently, otherwise his pace 
will be slovenly and his head 
low ; but if his head is raised too 
much, it will prevent his walking 
freely, as it compels him to 
shorten his step. If he does not 
exert himself, he must be gently 
animated ; and if he should break into a trot, he must be checked by 
a, pull of the reins, not so strong, however, or so long continued, as 
to cause him to stop. Turns in the walk should generally be per- 
formed slowly, and all the aids brought into requisition to produce 
them ; as, for instance, in turning to the left, that hand should be 
held rather lower than the other, and by moving the little finger 
gently upwards and towards the body that rein will be tightened and 
held back, while with the right hand the outer rein is slightly 
slackened ; a gentle pressure with both legs should accompany these 
movements of the hand, in order to bear up the horse, keep him to 
the bridle, compel him to bring his haunches under, and obey the 
leading rein ; if the indications are given by the inward leg only, it 
will make the animal throw his haunches too much outwards. In 
making the horse wheel on his centre, the hand and the heel work 
together; the hand guides the shoulder round, and the leg leads the 
croupe, so that in the movement the fore feet describe one half circle, 
and the hind feet another. The instant the w^heel is finished, the 
ihand, body, and legs must resume their usual positions. 

The STOP is made by the rider's 
drawing in his arms, keeping his 
fingers towards his body, and 
holding both reins uniformly and 
powerfully; then pressing for a 
moment his legs to the horse's 
sides to urge him up to the bridle 
he throws his body back, and so 
gives full effect to the check; all 
these movements should be done 
instantaneously, and with only one 
motion. Should the rider not close 
liis legs, in all likelihood the horse will not bring his haunches under, 
and the stop by being on the shoulders will lose its effect. If the 
stop is made by a gradual cessation of action, it looks very slovenly ; 
-and if the check is given in the middle of a cadence, it is incorrect, 





HIDING. 



115 



^ud looks very slovenly also ; the stop should he so timed that the 
horse will stop at the finish of a cadence, without breaking the 
previous time, and be so well balanced on his haunches, and so brisk, 
that on the slightest indication from his rider, he would advance with 
the same speed as before. If the stop is made correctly, it shows 
the great control the rider's hand has over the horse ; it compels him 
to be submissive, unites him, makes his haunches pliant, and bends 
his houghs or lower parts of the thighs ; it should not, however, be 
practised too often, as much ill may result from an injudicious 
use of it. Should the horse,, in stopping, toss up his head, the left 
liand must be kept firm and low, permitting no liberty of the bridle, 
while the right hand must press on his neck until he brings down 
his nose, when in an instant all the bridle should be allowed him. If 
the horse will not readily answer the indications to stop, he must be 
compelled to go backwards, by way of punishment for his obstinacy. 
In going backwards, the horse has always one of his hind legs under 
his belly, on which he balances himself, while he is stepping back 
with the other ; his head must be steady and right, and his feet 
should be even. In this movement the rider should aid the horse by 
keeping an even feeling on both reins, bending his body a little for- 
wards, and pressing the horse's sides gently with his legs, so as to 
keep him well up to the bit. If the horse turns his croupe out of 
the line, the heel must support and direct him ; as, for instance, if he 
turns his croupe to the right, the right leg must guide it into the 
proper line, and this movement must be performed very carefully, 
for if the aid is given too strongly, the horse will most probably throw 
■the croupe too much to the opposite side. 

TEOTTING. 

In trotting, the horse raises 
two feet at a time, that is, the 
near fore foot and the off hind 
foot, and vice versa ; thus 
making only two beats instead 
of four, as in walking. In the 
trot there is a leading foot, 
•either the right or left, by 
which that side is a little more 
advanced than the other. The 
leading with either foot is ex- 
tremely useful, for if a horse 
unused to altering, is obliged 
through fatigue or chance to 
change the leading leg for that v/hich he is not habituated to, his 
action will be hard, cramped, and irregular. During the trot, the 
rider must sit close to the saddle, preserving his seat not by the 
pressure of his knees, but by a good balance of the body— which 
must be slightly inclined forwards —he should neither stand nor rise 
in his stiiTup, but allow his whole figure to act in unison with the 
motions of the horse ; and in order to preserve a proper degree of 

I 2 




116 



correspondence and appuy, he must keep his hands steady and pliant. 
If the horse trots too fast, the action should be checked by tightening 
the hold on the reins ; if too slow, he must be animated and en- 
couraged to put his foot out boldly ; while giving these animations, 
the rider must support his fore- hand up, and then a touch of the 
fingers, or an animation of the tongue, whip, or legs, will have its 
due effect. In road riding, the proper pace for which is the trot, if 
the horse trots in a disagreeably rough manner, the rider may ease 
the jolting by rising slightly in his stirrups, and the quicker the horse 
trots, the easier it is for the rider, as he is elevated not by his own 
movements, but by the action of the horse ; though this is called 
rising in the stirrups, they are no great importance to the rider in 
holding on ; indeed, no dependence should be placed in such supports, 
for many persons who have relied on their footing in the stirrups, 
have been thrown by the horse turning suddenly round, or shying. 
The arms and shoulders must not be jerked up and down through 
the motion of the body, for great steadiness of hand is required to 
preserve the due degree of correspondence with the horse's mouth ; 
neither should the legs press his sides, as that would most likely 
cause him to break into a gallop ; which pace he must not be permit- 
ted to shift into, as it spoils the beauty of the action to be constantly 
varying from one pace to the other. As the directions respecting 
turns, stops, &c., which are inserted under the head of '*the walk," 
hold good with regard to the same movement in the trot, we need 
not repeat them. 

THE CANTEK AND GALLOP. 

In the CANTEE, which is the 
most difficult kind of gallop, the 
horse's feet are raised from, and 
come to the ground, so as to 
mark a regular quick, sharp time 
of one, two, three, four. To 
urge the horse into a canter, the- 
rider should press him with his. 
legs, or animate him with his 
tongue, and at the same time 
slightly raise his hand, to incite 
him to lift his fore legs ; however, 
should he be inclined merely to 
perform a quicker trot, the hands- 
must be kept firm, and the animations increased, until he moves at 
the desired pace. The gallop is an extended canter, and in both 
actions it is immaterial with which leg the horse leads off, provided 
the hind leg of the same side follows it. In galloping to the right, 
the horse should lead with the inward or off fore leg, followed by the 
off hind leg ; and in turning to the left, he must lead with the near 
fore and hind legs ; when performed in this manner the action is 
termed united, but if, on the contrary, he leads off with the off fore 
acd near hind legs, and vice versa, he is considered disunited, and if 




EIDING. 



117 



in galloping either to the right or left he leads with both near or off 
legs, his action is reckoned false. If the horse strikes off with the 
wrong leg, false or disunited, the rider should, by shortening the in- 
w^ard rein, and applying his off leg to the horse's side, strive to 
make him change, and lead with the proper leg. If the animations 
are not kept up, and the full action is not supported by the hand, the 
horse will break into a trot ; therefore, the moment the action is felt 
to be declining, it should be immediately restored by the proper 
animations. The stop in the gallop should be so timed, that it may 
be begun when the horse's fore feet are coming to the ground, which 
is the beginning of the cadence, and end when the horse brings his 
hind feet to the exact distance, and so finishes the cadence ; it is 
useless, hov/ever, to attempt making a perfect stop, unless the horse 
is correct in this pace or time of his paces. The double arret is the 
stop completed in two cadences of the gallop, instead of one, and 
therefore is not so distressing either to the horse or his rider ; at the 
first cadence, the body should be thrown gently back, so as to check 
the horse's movement in some measure, but not entirely ; and the 
finish should be in the second cadence, the rider still keeping his 
body back. 

THE STANDING LEAP. 

The moveable bar for leaping 
should not be more than from 
one to two feet in height at 
the fii'st, but it may be gra- 
dually elevated as the rider 
perfects himself; however, it 
should never be very high. 
The leaps are taken either 
standing or flying : the former, 
although practised first, is by 
far the most difficult to sit, 
but by being taken slowly 
and deliberate^, it affords 
the rider time and recollection, 
and the riding-master an opportunity to render assistance in case of 
mishaps, and to instruct. As its name implies, this leap is taken 
from a standing position, without any run before it ; when the horse 
is at the bar, the animations of the hand and leg will incite him to 
rise, and as he does so, the rider should, to preserve his perpendicular 
position, allow his body to come rather forwards, keep his back in, 
and his head firm ; as the horse springs forwards, he should slip his 
breech under him, so as to let his body go readily back, and keep his 
legs close and body back until the animal's hind legs have come fully 
to the ground. The rider must press his legs, from the knee, so 
closely to the horse's sides, that the action of the body will not relax 
them ; the toes should be raised so as to keep the spurs from galling 
the horse's sides, and if requisite, they may be turned out a little, to 
strer^gthen the hokl. The position of the hands also must be parti- 




118 



EIDIXG-. 



cularly attended to ; ?^t the first moment of taking the leap, the rider 
must give the rein to the horse, without reserve, and as the horse's 
hind feet come to the ground, collect the reins firmly, resume his 
position, and proceed at a moderate pace ; the hands should be kept 
low, and at the centre of the body, for if otherwise, they confine the 
horse's head, prevent the rider's body from going easily back, and 
also throw him forwards. If the horse is too much collected, in 
order to incite him to rise, he will bound over the bar, and if not 
sufficiently so, he will perhaps not clear it ; the animations necessary- 
must be left to the judgment of the rider, as they entirely depend on 
the tempera,ment of the animal. 



pace to it, but if he is sluggish, he should be animated with the 
spur just before his head is turned towards the leap, and pushed 
into a short, collected gallop. It is quite useless for the rider, when 
taking this leap, to bring his body forwards as the horse raises his 
fore legs, because the spring from the hind legs being taken instantly 
afterwards, if the horse checked himself, and refused to take the 
leap, or did not come fair, he might be thrown over the horse's head 
through the forward position of his body. The rider should there- 
fore hold on firmly by his legs, and keep his hands down ; as the 
horse springs forwards, his body will invariably take the proper 
movement of leaning back, especially if he, at the moment of the 
spring, slips his breech under him and brings his waist forwards. 

The horse requires, in this leap, little support from the hands until 
he comes to the ground, when the aid of the hands assist in sup- 
porting him, and in bringing the rider's body upright. 



THE FLYING LEAP 




Is much easier than 
the standing leap, al- 
though the movement 
is quicker ; it may be 
taken from any pace 
without previously halt- 
ing, but a moderate pace 
is the best, as then the 
horse rises at a proper 
time, neither too soon 
nor too late. From ten 
to fifteen yards is the 
proper distance for a 
horse to trot before he 
takes the leap ; if he is 
well trained, he may be 
allowed to take his own 



COiS^CLUDJNG OBSERVATIONS. 



Some authors are of opinion that boys should not be permitted 
to ride on horseback before they are twelve years of age, on account 



119 



of the many attractions which the exercise presents, and the 
strength, care, and presence of mind, which it requires, yet if lads 
are allowed only to dash about on their little Shetland or Norway 
ponies, they, in process of time, acquire a short, fidgeting style, 
which ill adapts them to answer the bold, free action of a horse, 
when they happen to be perched upon one, and which bad habit it is- 
hard to escape from afterwards. 

Ponies are generally more vicious and tricky than horses, but they 
are capable of enduring much greater fatigue, often performing- 
nearly double the work in proportion to their size. 

Many ponies are never trained, but are taken and ridden in the 
rough ; they are consequently not so tender in the mouth as those 
regularly broken in, and require rather stronger handling. 

The young tyro, when he essays his skill, should endeavour to ride 
well ; a good style is not difficult to acquire, and besides being 
exceedingly graceful when gained, adds much to the enjoyment of 
the exercise, for a slovenly, careless, or unskilful equestrian never 
can truly appreciate the pleasure of a ride. 

''Xenophon has a most charming remark, that we should endea- 
vour to make ourselves to our horse the organ of pleasure, and that 
we should associate with our presence the idea of absence of pain. 
I should like to quote one more golden rule from this most christian- 
like heathen, namely, that nothing should be done to the horse in 
auger. He should be fed from the hand with anything he ma}^ 
fancy, such as an apple or carrot, or sugar, and be made to come 
for it when whistled to, or called by name. When their heads are 
loose, by throwing pieces of apple or carrot on the ground, they 
will learn to watch your hand like a dog, and will soon pick up 
your glove, or handkerchief, or whip, and bring it in exchange for 
the reward ; or, when mounted, put their heads back to place it in 
your hand. These may all be 'foolish things to the wise,' but 
nothing is useless which familiarizes the horse ; which increases the 
confidence and intimacy between him and his rider ; or which teaches 
him to look to man for the indications of his will, and to obey them, 
Vfhether from fear, interest, or attachment. 

1 cannot finish without one word to deprecate a piece of inhu- 
manity, — the riding the horse fast on hard ground. This practice is 
as unhorsemanlike as it is inhuman. It is true that money will re- 
place the poor slaves as you use them up, and if the occasion re- 
quires it, they must, alas ! be used up : but, in my opinion, nothing 
but a case of life and death can justify the deed. If the ground be 
hard and even, a collected canter may be allowed ; but if hard and 
uneven, a moderate trot at most. One hour's gallop on such ground 
would do the soundest horse irremediable mischief; those who boast 
of having gone such a distance in such a time, on the ground sup- 
posed, show ignorance or inhumanity."* 



* Hints on Horsemanship. 



120 




DRIVING. 

" The rash boy Phaeton his proud chariot drove 
Till he was smitten by almig-hty Jove : 
Take heed, young- driver, while you like him boast, 
You are not * spilled' against an ugly post." 

Swift. 

-ytrfm !•: - 

INTRODUCTION. 

Our young friends ought to know not only how to ride, but also how 
to drive. From the very earliest times horse and chariot races were 
considered the noblest of sports, and Apollo is represented as driving 
the chariot of the sun. The four horses were typical of the foui* 
seasons of the year. Four horses driven abreast was common also 
to the Olympic games, and the Hippodrome was the scene of chariot 
races in which even a greater number was sometimes used. 

It was, indeed, an imposing sight to see the Hippodromic course 
at the time of one of these chariot festivals. The place set apart 
for the contest was about a mile in length. Over a bar that ran 
across the entrance of the lists was placed a brazen dolphin, and 
upon an altar in the middle of the barrier stood an eagle of the same 



DRIVING. 



121 



metal. By means of a machine, put in motion by the president of 
the games, the eagle suddenly sprang up into the air with its wings 
extended, so as to be seen by all spectators ; and at the same moment 
the dolphin sank to the ground, which was a signal for the cars to 
arrange themselves in order for the race. Besides the statue of 
Hippodamia, and the table on which were placed the crowns and 
palm-branches, there were several images and altars in the course, 
particularly that of the genius Taraxippus, who, as his name imports, 
was said to inspire the horses with a secret terror, which was in- 
creased by the shrill clangour of the trumpets placed near the 
boundary, and the deafening shouts and outcries of the multitude. 

While the chariots were ranged in line ready to start, the horses, 
whose ardour it was difficult to restrain, attracted all eyes by their 
beauty, as well as for the victories which some of them had already 
gained. Pindar speaks of no less than forty chariots engaged at one 
and the same time. If we recollect that they had to run twelve 
times the length of the Hippodrome, in going and returning, and to 
steer round a pillar or goal erected near each extremity, we may 
imagine what confusion must have ensued when, upon the signal 
trumpet being sounded, they started amid a cloud of dust, crossing 
and jostling each other, and rushing forward with such rapidity that 
the eye could scarcely follow them. At one of the boundaries a 
narrow pass was left only for the chariots, which often baffied the 
skill of the expertest driver ; and there were upwards of twenty 
turnings to make round the two pillars ; so that at almost ever}'" 
moment some accident happened, calculated to excite the pity or 
insulting laughter of the assembly. In such a number of chariots 
at full speed, pushing for precedence in turning round the columns, 
on which victory often depended, some were sure to be dashed to 
pieces, covering the course with their fragments, and adding to the 
dangers of the race. As it was, moreover, exceedingly difficult for 
the charioteer, in his unsteady two-wheeled car, to retain his standing 
attitude, many were thrown out, when the masterless horses plunged 
wildly about the Hippodrome, overturning others who had, perhaps, 
previously escaped every danger, and thought themselves sure of 
winning. To increase the confusion, and thereby afford better oppor- 
tunities for the display of skill and courage, there was reason to 
believe that some artifice was employed for the express purpose of 
frightening the horses when they reached the statue of Taraxippus. 
So great sometimes was their consternation, that, no longer regarding 
the rein, the whip, or the voice of their master, they broke loose, or 
overturned the chariot, and wounded the driver. 

Such is the ancient description given by a Greek writer of the 
chariot races of the Hippodrome. We have no coach racing now-a- 
days, except omnibus racing in the streets : not a great deal of 
"coaching." Now and then, indeed, we see the " Brighton four- 
horse," and start with wonder at the sight. But still there are 
necessities for private driving, more important at the present than at 
any former period ; and we hold driving to be not only a necessary, 
but an indispensable accomplishmeut to every young gentleman. 



122 



THE HOKSE IN HARNESS. 
A horse fully equipped in liarness, attached to a dennet or 
stanhope, is one of the most beautiful things to look at in the world ; 
few boys are trusted to drive a pair ; nor have they physical power 
for the task. We will therefore confine our attention chiefly to 
single harness, adding only a short description of the various kinds 
of carriages in common use. If, however, the youthful chaiioteer 
can drive a single horse well, he will find no difficulty in controlling 
a pair, provided their mouths are sufficiently tender for his strength 




to manage. The horse is here represented harnessed to a fight 
dennet- gig. 

THE HORSE 

May be either a full- sized harness horse, or a galloway, or a pony : 
the two last being the best fitted for juvenile driving. 

THE HARNESS, 

In every case, is composed of the same parts, which consist of three 
essential divisions : 1st, the driving, or guiding part ; 2nd, the 
drawing part ; and 3rd, that for holding up the shafts. The driving 
part comprises the bridle and reins. The bridle is made up of a 
front piece (1), a head piece (2), two cheek pieces and winkers (3), 
a nose band (4), and a throat lash (5). The cheek pieces are buckled 
to the bit (6) by means of leather loops, called billets, as also are the 
driving reins (7), and the bearing rein, which is attached to a sepa- 
rate bit called the bridoon (a plain snaffle), and then is hooked to the 
pad hook. This is now very generally dispensed with, as shown in 
the cat at the head of this article ; but for young drivers it is often 
desirable when they have not strength to check the fall of a horse. 
The drawing parts consist of a padded oval ring fitted to the 
shoulders, and called the collar (10), sometimes replaced by a padded 
strap across the chest called the breast strap. On the collar are 



fastened two iron bars called liames (12), by means of a strap at 
the top and bottom (8-11), and these hames have a ring in th^ 
upper part for the reins to pass through, called the hame terret (9); 
and nearer the lower part, a strong arm of iron covered with a coating 
of brass, silver, or leather, which receives in its eye the tug of the 
trace (13). The trace (17) is a long and strong strap of double lea- 
ther, stitched, which runs from the collar to the drawing bar, and 
may be lengthened or shortened by a buckle. The part for holding 
the gig up consists of a pad or saddle, which is buckled on to the 
horse by the belly band (16), and from which the shaft is suspended 
by the back band and shaft tug. It is prevented from slipping for- 
ward by the crupper, which is slipped over the tail. Besides these 
parts, some horses have in addition a breechen (18-19) which holds 
the shafts back in going down hill ; and when they are addicted to 
kicking, a strap is buckled over their hips to the shaft, which is 
called a kicking strap. 

THE CAEETAGE. 

The Dennet-gig, as represented in the last page, is the most 
common form for a two-w^heeled carriage ; but there are also the 




THE BraiZSCHKA. 



124 DEIVING. 

Barouche, and Phaeton ; and of closed four-wheeled carriages there 
are the Brougham and Clarence on elliptic springs, and the chariot 




NEW BEGUGHAM. 



and family coach with c springs. When these two last are made to 
open, they are called the Landaulet and Landau. 




THE FAMILY COACH. 



PUTTING TO. 

Before driving, it is necessary that the horse or pony should be 
" put to," which is effected as follows : 1st, slip the shafts through 
the tugs, or, if there are hooks, drop them down into them ; 2nd, 
put the traces on to the drawing-bar, either hooking them on, or else 
slipping them on to the eyes, and being careful to place the leather 
stops in these, to prevent the trace coming off ; 3rd, buckle the 
belly-band sufiiciently tight ; and 4th, buckle the kicking-strap, 
or breechen, if either is used. After this, the reins are taken 
from the terrets, where they were previously placed, and the horse 
is ready. 

DIRECTIONS FOR DRIVING. 

In driving, the reins are held differently from the mode already 
described as used in riding, the fore-finger being first placed between 



125 



them, and then both the reins are grasped by all the other fingers, 
and the near-side rein is also held firmly against the fore-finger by 




means of the thumb. In this way, on an emergency, the near or 
left rein may be pulled by itself, by holding it firmly with the thumb 
and sufi'ering the other, or ofi* rein, to slip through the fino-ers or 
"vice versa. The most usual way is to pull the left rein with the left 
hand, and the right with the right hand, by hooking one or two 
fingers over it while held firmly in the left. In this manner, with 
the whip also held in the right hand, the horse is guided or stopped. 
The young driver should take care and keep his feet well before him* 
with his knees as straight and firm as possible, so that in case of a 
fall of the horse he may not be thrown forwards out of the vehicle 
he is driving. He should also sit square to his work, with his elbow 
held easily to his side, and his left thumb pointing to his horse's head 
by which, as in riding, his elbow is pretty sure to be properly placed! 
The bit should not be too firmly pulled against, but a light and 
''give and take" kind of handling is the best, by which the horse is 
allowed freedom of action, and yet is checked if he makes a mistake. 
In meeting other vehicles, the rule is to keep to your left and in 
passing them, to leave them also on your left. This should be rigidly 
adhered to, for fear of the accidents which would otherwise con- 
stantly happen. 



126 



ROWING. 

*• They rowed hard, and sung thereto, 
With hevelow rohumbeloo." 

jRicTiard Coeur de Lion. 

We suppose that every English man or boy who takes to rowing or 
sailing for amusement wishes to go fast; now, every fast boat is 
more or less liable to be upset, even with the best and most skilful 
management ; and when a boat is upset, he who can swim laughs at 
the adventure, he who cannot swim is not only himself in danger, 
but endangers others who feel obliged to risk their own lives in order 
to save his. Therefore, let every one learn to swim before he 
attempts either to row or sail in a fast boat : he will then be able 
to enjoy the amusement, and his friends on shore will feel at ease, 
and not wish to deter him. Having acquired this art, he may safely 
proceed in learning to row, and with it to learn the general manage- 
ment of a rowing-boat. Boys at school, and men at college can often 
row very well without being ivaterrnen — that is to say, without 
understanding how the boat, the oars, the rudder, &c., ought to be 
fitted, or how to steer or manage a boat in difficulties, or how to 
row except in a boat and with an oar fitted exactly as it ought to be'; 
but let the beginner not follow this example — let him determine to 
learn how to detect and correct any fault in the fittings of a boat, 
a,nd how to row under difficulties. Of course anyone can row better 
in a properly-fitted boat than in one that is not so, but grumbling at 
the boat and fittings is the sign of a greenhorn : a good waterman 
should be able to row anywhere and anyhow — with a mopstick 
across a tenpenny nail, if necessary, and at the same time should 
know how to make the best of a good boat and oars when he has 
got them. These arts are only to be acquired by rowing in all sorts 
of boats, by listening to what watermen or experienced oarsmen have 
to say on the subject, by always looking out to pick up something 
new, and to learn something every day ; and first let the beginner 
learn the names and use of every part of a boat, and of its fittings. 

There are several methods of fitting the oars and boat, according 
to the purpose required ; we will begin with freshwater boats, and 
the style of rowing adapted for them, inasmuch as seamen hate 
rowing, and without exception row badly. The boats now used in 
freshwater are either outriggers ov gigs; wherries, funnies, skifis, &c., 
being almost superseded. The outrigger is so called from having an 
iron frame or outrigger on each side of the boat to carry the rotvloch 
and so enable a longer-handled oar to be used. They were first brought 



BOWING. 



127 



into notice by the Claspers from Newcastle, in 1841, and have now- 
superseded all other boats for racing purposes. The gig is a broader 
and higher boat, and has a straight gunwale, a stern nearly upright, 
and a transom or flat piece to the stern. A loherry is shown in our 
illustration. Twenty years ago, hardly anything else was used on 
the Thames but wherries. A funny is a long sculling boat sharp at 
each end ; a shiff is a stronger, shorter, heavier, and wider boat, 
used to carry people or goods without risk of upsetting ; a shallop is 
a still larger boat, used for pleasure-parties, &c. ; Si punt is a strongly- 
built boat, with a flat bottom and square ends, used for fishing, and 
is usually propelled by pushing on the ground with a punt-pole. 
Four-oars, six-oars (seldom used), and eight-oars are now always 
<»utriggers when used for racing, gigs for ordinary pulling. An 
outrigger wager sculler's boat is 30 feet long, 16 inches wide, and 
weighs about 40 pounds; a pair-oar wager-boat is 36 feet long, 
20 inches wide; an eight-oar from 56 feet to 66 feet long and 2 feet 
3 inches wide. 

We proceed to give the technical names of the parts of a boat. 




Our illustration is an old-fashioned wherry, which will serve as well 
as any other. 1, The hoivs, or front part of the boat ; 8, the stern, 
after-part, or hind-part of the boat ; the rest of the boat is called the 
midships. Under the bottom of the boat, projecting about an inch, 
is a long piece of wood called the heel ; where the keel turns up 
forward at 2, it is called the stem ; the upright piece of wood fitting 
into the keel abaft is called the stern-post, and to this the o^udder is 
hung. In square-sterned boats there is, besides, the transom. The 
sides of the boat are made of planks nailed together, and called 
straJces ; the lowest strakes next the keel are called the garhoards. 
The strakes are strengthened and the boat is kept in shape by pieces 
of wood crossing the boat in the inside, like ribs, called timbers or 
lands. The square holes, 3, 3, 3, are called rowlocks, and consist 
of the thole, against which the oar is pulled ; the stopper, or after- 
thole, forming the other side of the rowlock; and the \Q2ii]iev filling, 
forming the bottom of the rowlock. The seats across the boat, 4, 4, 4, 4, 
are called thioarts ; the pieces of wood fastening them to the sides of the 
boat are hnees ; the piece of board, 5, against which the feet rest, 
the stretcher ; the boards for standing on at the bottom of the boat 
amidships are 'bottom-hoards or burdens ; the boards in the bow, the 
how-sheets ; those in the stern, the stern- sheets ; the space between 
the steerer's thwart and the thwart of the stroke-oar is the state- 
room^ and in large boats has seats on each side for sitters. 



128 



EOWING. 



Fitted to the top of the rudder is a cross-piece of wood or brass 
called the yoke, attached to which are ropes called yoke-lines, for the 
steerer's hands. In eight-oars it is nsual to have the yoke-lines 
attached to the side of the boat, and passing through pulleys in the 
yoke, in order to give more power to the steerer. The rope by which 
the boat is made fast is called the 'painter, or sometimes the head- 
fast. Wager-boats are built of white fir or mahogany, gigs usually 
of white fir, but sometimes of oak. Fir is perhaps lighter, but oak 
lasts much longer. Sea-going boats are usually built of elm; and 
the timbers of ash. 

When the rower rows with an oar in each hand, the oars are called 
sculls^ and are shorter ; when he uses only one oar, it is called an 
oar, and is about 13 feet 5 inches long. Sculls and oars are usually 
of white pine, and consist of the handle and the loom, within the 
rowlock, and the part outside of the rowlock, consisting of the 
shank or small, and the Made, and are fitted either with boxing or 
filling, and a button, or with leather and a stop. The sculls usually 
overlap about four inches ; the handle of the oar should just clear 
the other side of the boat. The oars in a boat are numbered from 
the bow, No. 1 being the bow, No. 2 the next, and so on to No. 8, 
or stroke in an eight-oar. The stroke oar is always on the po7^tf 
larboard, or left side of the boat, and the oars on that side are called 
the stroke or larboard oars ; the oars on the right side of the boat 
the bow or starboard oars. 

It should be recollected that pair-oar rowing is the foundation of 
all rowing ; in a four, and still more easily in an eight, defects, 
especially shirking, may pass undetected, but not easily in a pair- 
oar. Let the beginner, therefore, get some experienced friend or a 
waterman to give the first lessons in a steady and not too light boat ; 
if he can get some one to row stroke whilst the friend or waterman 
steers and instructs, so much the better ; if not, let the friend or 
waterman pull the bow oar so as to see his pupil at his work. The 
mat must be firmly tied to the thwart, and this every man should 
learn to do for himself, as the men at the boathouse never do it 
properly. Flannel mats with strings are much the best. Let the 
pupil then seat himself on the thwart nearly on the after edge of it, 
bending his knees a little, and opening them about afoot, and placing 
his feet firmly against the stretcher, with heels close together and 
toes turned out straight before him : if the strap is used, 
the outside foot, or that nearest the middle of the boat, will be 
passed under it ; but for the first few lessons, the stra^D should not be 
used, as a man ought to be able to row without it. The stretcher 
must of course be adjusted to the proper length. The pupil will then 
take hold of the oar with the button just inside the thole, and grasp 
the oar with the outside hand close to the end, but not capping it, 
and thumb above the oar, the inside hand about three inches from 
the other, just where the square loom begins, thumb under the oar. 
Let him then sit upright, sti'aighten his back, flatten and drop his 
shoulders, keeping them perfectly square, and hold his head a very 
little forward, elbows close to his sides, sitting very nearly as he 



BOWING. 



129 



would be directed to sit by a drill-sergeant or dancing- master, 
the only exception being that the knees are open and the head a 
little forward, and that he holds the oar. Let him then stretch 
forward as far as the stopper will allow the oar to go, which is about 
as far as he can reach, still keeping his back straight, his shoulders 
square, though of course a little raised, his arms extended, his out- 
side wrist flat with the arm, his inside wrist bent convexly. And 
here let the pupil understand clearly that all the motions are to be 
made by swinging evenly backwards and forwards on his seat as on 
a hinge ; the back is never to be bent, and though the shoulders 
must necessarily be raised a little in reaching forward, in going back 
they should be dropped as low as they can be brought. There is a 
common notion that rowing rounds the back and shoulders, and had 
rowing does so, but a good oar has his shoulders and back as flat as 
any drill-sergeant would wish them to be ; when his shoulders are 
humped or his back rounded, it is a sign that he is tired out and 
done. If the rower raises one shoulder higher than another, or does 
not swing evenly backwards and forwards, he makes the boat roily 
and prevents the other men from rowing properly. Let the pupil 
then resume the upright position, stretch forward a little, and dip 
the oar into the water, taking care that the blade is upright, and 
the button against the thole ; let him then pull a short stroke, keep- 
ing the blade upright and leaning back a little, the first stroke or 
two without any pressure, afterwards pressing on the oar, taking 
care to have the chest well bent forward towards the loom, so as to 
strike the water and feel resistance at once. Let the pupil continue 
to make short strokes like this until he can keep his oar upright and 
recover himself after each stroke, keeping the button against the 
thole, and when he can do this pretty well, let him begin to feather, 
or bring the oar out of the water in a horizontal or flat position ; 
this is done by dropping the wrists sharply at the end of the stroke, 
and though difiicult at first, is very soon acquired. 

There are different styles of feathering ; the Oxford and Thames 
men feather high ; Cambridge men almost graze the surface of the 
water, which certainly looks well, but cannot be done if there is any 
sea or rough water. In about an hour any one who takes pains 
ought to have mastered these points, and that ought to suffice for 
one day ; and at the end of each quarter of an hour, the pupil 
should change sides and work with the other oar. If this is not done 
at the very beginning, he is likely to contract a habit of rowing on 
one side only, and will never learn to row on the other side ; a defi- 
ciency which will cause great inconvenience to himself and others in 
future time. 

On the following day, the pupil should be taught to stretch 
out and pull his stroke through, and to keep time, the instructor 
pulling a very long, slow, and steady stroke; the pupil should 
then be taught to hacJc-ivater, which is exactly the reverse of pulling, 
as the oar is then pushed through the water so as to propel the boat 
s*-,ern foremost, or to assist in turning the boat round ; he should 
also be taught to ship his oar neatly and quickly ; and this is done by 

K 



130 



BOWING, 



letting go with the outside hand, and lifting the oar sharply up out 
of the rowlock with the inside hand, letting the blade float astern. 
The beginner would do well to go out in a safe boat with a friend, and 
practise backing and shipping till he can do both quickly and neatly at 
the word of command ; and in about three lessons of an hour each the 
pupil ought to become a passable oar. This system of pair-oared 
tuition is immeasurably superior to and quiclcer than the ordinary 
(plan pursued at schools and colleges, of putting seven raw hands 
into an eight with a tolerable stroke and a good coxswain, and trying 
to teach them all at once. The unhappy wretches have no idea of 
what they ought to do, and cannot understand the directions of their 
coxswain, who sits raving and storming at them, and at the end of 
the lesson they return stiff, sore, tired, and disgusted, having learnt 
very little, and probably begun to contract faults which they may 
never get rid of. Let the first rowing of every man be carefully 
attended to, and all faults checked at once before they grow into 
habits. For all further tuition we refer to the following extract from 
*'The Principles of Rowing and Steering," by studying which the 
beginner or even the advanced oar may learn what to do and 
what to avoid. 

'^The requisites for a perfect stroke are, — 

1. Taking the whole reach forward, and falling back gradually 
a little past the perpendicular, preserving the shoulders throughout 
square, and the chest developed at the end. 

2. Catching the water and beginning the stroke with a full 
tension on the arms at the instant of contact. 

3. A horizontal and dashing pull through the water immediately 
the blade is covered, without deepening in the space subsequently 
traversed. 

4. Rapid recovery after feathering by an elastic motion of the 
hody from the hips, the arms being thrown forward perfectly straight 
simultaneously with the body, and the forward motion of each 
ceasing at the same time. 

5. Lastly, equability in all the actions, preserving full strength 
without harsh, jerking, isolated, and uncompensated movements 
in any single part of the frame. 

^'Faults in Rowing. —The above laws are sinned against when the 
. rower 

1. Does not straighten both arms before him. 

2. Keeps two convex wrists instead of the outside wrist flat. 

3. Contrives to put his hands forward by a subsequent motion 
after the shoulders have attained their reach, which is getting the 
body forward without the arms. 

4. Extends the arms without a corresponding bend on the part 
of the shoulders, which is getting the arms forward without the 
body. 

5. Catches the water with unstraightened arms or arm, and a 
J slackened tension as its consequence ; thus time may be kept, but 

not stroke ; keeping stroke always implying uniformity of work. 
_ 6. Hangs before dipping downwards to begin the stroke. 



EOWIIirG. 



131 



7. Does not cover the blade up to the shoulder. 

8. Rows round and deep in the middle, with hands high and 
blade still sunken after the first contact. 

9. Curves his back forward or aft. 

10. Keeps one shoulder higher than the other. 

11. Jerks. 

12. Doubles forward and bends over the oar at the feather, bring- 
ing the body up to the handle and not the handle up to the body. 

13. Strikes the water at an obtuse angle, or rows the first part in 
the air. 

14. Cuts short the end, prematurely slacking the arms. 

15. Shivers out the feather, commencing it too soon and bringing 
the blade into a plane with the water while work may yet be done ; 
thus the oar may leave the water in perfect time, but stroke is not 
kept. This and No. 5 are the most subtle faults in rowing, and 
involve the science of shirking. 

16. Eolls backward, with an inclination towards the inside or 
outside of the boat. 

17. Turns his elbows at the feather instead of bringing them 
sharp past the flanks. 

18. Keeps the head depressed between the shoulders instead of 
erect. 

19. Looks out of the boat instead of straight before him. (This 
almost inevitably rolls the boat. ) 

20. Throws up water instead of turning it well aft off the lower 
angle of the blade. A wave thus created is extremely annoying to 
the oar further aft ; there should be no wave travelling astern, but 
an eddy containing two small circling swirls." 

Nos. 17 and 18 perhaps only affect the appearance, but all the 
other requisites and faults go to the essentials of rowing. 

As soon as the pupil has become tolerably skilful in the manage- 
ment of his oar he will be put into a four or eight-oar, and will 
have to practise what he has learnt, and we will venture to give 
him two hints : 1st. To pay particular attention to keeping time. 
2nd. To take particular care not to put his oar in the water before 
he has finished going forward ; of the two it is better to make the 
first part of the stroke in the air, though that, of course, is not 
right ; but putting the oar in the water too soon will inevitably 
splash the men who are forward, and of all the faults which annoy 
the other men, splashing and not keeping time are the worst. One 
misfortune which will probably happen once or twice to every learner 
is catching a crah, by letting the oar turn in the water the wrong 
way before taking it out ; the water then pens the oar down, and the 
handle bears the rower backwards ofi" his seat. The moment he 
feels this likely to happen he must sharply ship his oar, and if he is 
quick he may escape the annoyance and danger of being knocked 
backwards. It will be at least a month before the beginner is able 
to handle his oar with ease and comfort to himself and satisfaction 
to others ; and during this time, as at all times, he ought to pay 
attention to the instructions of the captain and coxswain, and take 

k2 



132 



BOWING. 



their scolding and remarks willingly and good-humouredly. Above 
all things let him not take it into his head that he is right and the 
others wrong ; in the first place it is very unlikely, and in the next 
place, however right he may be, until he is captain, and able to en- 
force his own ideas, he must row as the others row. Eight inferior 
oars rowing together, and in the same way, would inevitably beat 
the best eight oars in England if each of them persisted in rowing 
in his own way. Another most important thing to a beginner is, 
never row a single strolce carelessly or badly; if you are tired, row 
easily, but in good form and style. In fact, form and style must be 
taught and learnt in paddling — i. c. , rowing easily — and that is the 
time for it ; but there is never a time for rowing badly, and every 
stroke badly rowed is positively injurious. 

Sculling is practised on exactly the same principles as rowing 
with oars, except that both sculls being managed by one man he 
has but one hand for each. The sculler must of coarse sit exactly 
in the middle of the boat, and he must keep his back flatter and his 
shoulders lower if possible than when rowing ; the strength which 
can be put into the last part of the stroke depending entirely upon 
the drop of the shoulders. The great difiiculty in sculling, espe- 
cially since the light outriggers have been introduced, is in the 
steering, as the sculler must look behind him at least every third 
stroke, and to turn the head without turning the body or rocking 
the boat requires long practice. 

In pair-oar rowing the bow -oar steers and directs, whilst the 
stroke-oar merely pulls steadily and follows the directions of the 
bow-oar. The bow-oar being forward, has of course most power 
over the boa.t ; but it often happens that the best steerer is the 
strongest oar, and will therefore pull stroke and steer at the same 
time — of course at a disadvantage. The great secret in ordinary 
pair-oar rowing is to let one man steer and direct, the other merely 
following the directions and not slacking or pulling harder without 
orders, or without saying what he is going to do. Nothing is more 
provoking to the steerer and more likely to lead to accidents, and 
at the same time there is nothing more common, than for his com- 
panion to pull harder or easier without orders, and exactly when the 
steerer wishes it not to be done. When there is a side-wind the 
bow of the boat tends to turn towards the direction from which the 
wind is blowing ; this tendency must of course be counteracted by 
the rower whose oar is on that side, and he is then said to have the 
labour. 

In fours and eights there is always a steersman, or coxswain, and 
his art is at least as difficult to learn as the art of rowing. He 
should sit upright on his thwart, but well forward on it, putting his 
knees forward and his shins tucked under his thighs, with his feet 
as far beneath him as they can be brought, so as to be able to throw 
all his strength and weight upon the lines when required. He 
should take a turn with each line round the palm of the hand, and 
let the end come out between his forefinger and thumb, where it 
must be tightly nipped. His hands are to be w^ell in front and 



ROWING. 



133 



against the ribs, tlie little fingers resting on the thighs ; the lines 
are always to be kept on the stretch, so that any necessary pull may 
be instantly given. The steerer will find himself obliged to bend 
forward at each stroke ; but let him only yield to the motion and 
not hob violently, a process which cannot do any good, disturbs his 
own view, and tends to shake the boat. If any man believes in 
the efficacy of bobbing, let him get into a boat by himself and try 
to make her advance by bobbing. As soon as the steerer has had a 
little practice, and knows how much effect a pull on the yoke-lines 
produces, he ought to turn all his attention to steering straight, an 
art which is of immense importance, but which is usually neglected 
or left to chance. Let any one place himself where he can see an 
ordinary eight- oar coming towards him, and he will then see the 
zigzag devious course that in nine cases out of ten she will take. 
To prevent this, the steerer should early learn always to steer for 
some object right in the course ; the further off it is the better, and 
let him then keep, or try to keep, the boat's stem steadily pointed 
at that object. He will find this not so easy, but will attain the 
art by dint of practice, but not if he learns to lounge about and 
steer carelessly. When that object is no longer in the course, let 
him take another, and so on, recollecting that every touch of either 
yoke- line stops the boat, and that a zigzag is longer than a straight 
line. One thing which puzzles young steerers much is steering in a 
strong side-wind ; the boat is then constantly being driven bodily to lee- 
ward, and, in order to keep a straight line, the stem must not point 
at any object in the course, but must constantly point to loindioard 
of the course, and the boat must take a kind of crab-like motion, 
the proper angle for which must be found by trial. 

The steerer has also to instruct the crew, and to learn how to do 
that, he should carefully observe good rowing whenever he sees it, 
and read a good work on the subject. In instructing, he should not 
bully individuals : many faults are incurable, and many men will 
not try to alter. If a man has been told three times of a fault, and 
«hows no symptoms of amendment, it is useless to annoy him further, 
and he must either be turned out of the boat, or allowed to go on in 
his own way. When a man has improved or corrected a fault, let 
hini be immediately praised and complimented. All general un- 
meaning exclamations in which steersmen are wont to indulge, 
probably from not knowing what really ought to be said, are totally 
useless. In training a crew, it is an excellent plan for the stroke or 
best oar in the boat himself to take the yoke-lines occasionally, and 
see what the men are doing. If the river is narrow, the men can 
best be seen by running along the bank. 

We do not attempt here to teach the art of racing or of training a 
■crew, for all matters connected with which we refer the reader to a 
little work from which we have borrowed largely — "The Principles 
of Rowing and Steering" (Slatters and Rose, Oxford). 

A fast sculler will make about thirty-six strokes a minute, with 
oars forty strokes a minute may be taken. 

We now come to the two painful subjects connected with rowing, 



134 



the mere mention of whicli causes a shudder in every old oarsman : 
Misters on the hands, and rmvs on the stern. Every man suffers at 
first from bHsters, and the harder he pulls, the worse they are ; but 
after a time his hands get hard and horny, and no ordinary exertion 
will leave a mark. The blisters are often burst during the rowing : 
they are then usually painful, and all that can be done is to grin and 
bear it, avoiding the contact of water, which smarts at the time and 
retards the cure. If they get too bad, two or three days' rest will 
usually set matters right; if not, you are in bad health, and should 
go to the doctor. If the blister does not burst, let it remain as a 
protection for two days ; at the end of that time the new skin will 
be formed underneath, and the blister should be pricked to let out 
the water which keeps the new skin soft and incomplete. Haws will 
come at all times, but wriggling on the seat is a very frequent cause; 
the steadier a man sits, the less likely are raws. Of course any 
folds in the cushion or trousers are to be carefully avoided, as very 
likely to raise a raw. If the skin is fairly rubbed off, the place 
should be covered with goldbeaters'-skin, and a day's rest will then 
almost invariably effect a cure. 

We will add a few words as to sea-going hoats. The sides of the 
rowlocks are in them formed by two moveable pegs called tJioles ; 
there is no button or stop on the oars ; the oars are often of ash ; 
there is no difference between oars and sculls, and the term sculling 
is applied to propelling a boat by working an oar through a notch in 
the stern of the boat. The method of doing this cannot easily be 
described in words, and must be learnt by actual inspection and 
instruction. Sculling is much practised in France, and is perhaps 
the only branch of aquatics in which the French excel. 

Small rowing-boats in the sea, from nine to thirteen feet long, are 
called jpunts; the oars, instead of rowlocks, often work on a single 
pin or thole, which passes through a block of hard wood called a 
cleat, nailed to t]ie oar. Cleat- oars, of course, cannot be feathered, 
but are convenient for going alongside a vessel, and in other ways, 
as they may be let go without being lost. Those who use cleat- oars 
for the first time should recollect to put the oar on or abaft the thole, 
so as to pull upon the thole, not from it, which would soon tear off 
the cleat. The fittings of sea-going boats are usually very bad ; the 
thwarts are too high and too near the rowlocks, the oars are badly 
balanced, and there is no stretcher. If there is much sea, it is not 
possible to pull a long stroke or to feather quickly. This and the 
general defects in the fittings render the rowing of sailors almost 
always very bad and utterly unfit for imit?«tion ; but the good oarsman 
should always row as well as the boat will admit : the back may 
always be kept flat, the shoulders down, and the stroke pulled 
through. 



135 



SAILING. 

" O'er the glad waters of the dark blue sea, 
Our thoughts as boundless, and our souls as free." 

Corsair. 

There is perhaps no art of which so little can be learnt from books^ 
as that of sailing ; the very variety which forms the great pleasure 
in sailing, makes it at the same time impossible to give directions 
which will meet even the ordinary changes and chances of one day's 
sail. All that can -asefully be learnt from books is the names of the 
different things and the general principles of sailing ; the rest must 
be learnt by actual practice and by watching what is done by real 
sailors ; and to sail a boat even tolerably requires long, long practice, 
far more than rowing, riding, cricket, or any other sport which boys- 
or amateurs usually engage in. Whenever you hear either boy or 
man boasting of his achievements at sea, depend upon it that in nine 
cases out of ten, though the amateur may honestly fancy he has done 
all he describes, in fact he has merely been looking on whilst the 
sailors have been doing the work. 

The best boat for a beginner is one rigged as in Fig. 1, from 



rig. 1. 



136 



SAILING. 



twelve to fifteen feet long, four to five feet wide, with a mainsail, A, 
and SL foresail, B, one mast, a spleetj 1, and a humpJcin, or short iron 
bowsprit, 2. The mast will have one shroud on each side, and a 
forcstay to the stem, each set np by lanyards. The mainsail will be 
hoisted by a main halyard passing through a hole or over a sheave in 
the mast, and it is a very good plan to have this hole or sheave 
ahore the shrouds, as also the hole for the fore-hatyards, one hole 
being above the other. The S2:)Ieet fits into an eye at the peak of the 
mainsail, and into a hecJcet or snotter round the mast; and large boats 
have a rope to hoist and keep up the snotter. In small boats, the 
snotter, when wetted, sticks tight enough to the mast. The main- 
sheet works on a ho7'se at the stern. The fore-halyards pass through 
a hole in the mast-head, and the foresail is laced to the forestay. 
The fore-sheets lead through holes in the knees. To set the sails, 
hoist the mainsail by the main-halyards choch up, or as far as it 
will go, and then hclay the main-halyards to one of the cleats; then 
catch hold of the peak of the mainsail, and double the mainsail 
round forward of the mast ; then put the upper end of the spleet 
into the eye, and shove the spleet up. To do this properly requires 
practice ; in large boats there is a lashing to keep the eye from 
blowing off the end of the spleet, and the beginner may put a 
lashing if he likes. Then put the lower end of the spleet into the 
snotter, and hoist the snotter up the mast till the mainsail begins 
to wrinkle from the tack to the peak; then haul the mainsheet taut, 
and belay it till you are ready to start. The foresail is usually 
wrapped round the forestay ; untoggle the sheets and unwrap the 
foresail, then toggle on the sheets again, ship the tiller, and the boat 
will be ready. 

The beginner will of course have some one with him, and must 
at first confine himself to worHng the foresheets and to steering a 
little ; he will thus learn the principles on which a boat tachs or is 
put about, how to jibe safely, how to reef the mainsail and the fore- 
sail and how to fit a reefed snotter, how to stow the sails and moor 
the boat, and how to pich up moorings and to come alongside. Saihng- 
boats are usually made fast by a chain to a stone under water ; 
when the boat gets under way, the chain is let go, and is picked up 
again by a rope, one end of which is made fast to the chain, the 
other to a piece of wood or small cask called a buoy. To pick up 
this buoy again, sometimes the sails are lowered and the boat runs 
at it, but usually the boat is taken to leeward, and at the proper 
distance is licffed up, so as to come head to wind, and stop as 
nearly as may be over the buoy ; and to do this with certainty 
requires much practice. The beginner should go where he has 
plenty of room, taking out a buoy or piece of wood, and practice 
picking that up till he can measure his distance pretty accurately. 
To do this, however, and in fact to sail a boat at all, a clear 
understanding of the principles of sailing is of great assistance. 
Everybody can understand how a boat can sail before the wind — 
IX box for a boat, with a coat or an umbrella for a sail, can do 
that, but to sail with the wind on the side, or to make way 



SAILING. 



137 



against tlie wind, are far more difficult ; in fact, persons not ac- 
customed to it often doubt the possibility of doing so. In explaining 
this, we will consider the sails as quite flat, for the nearer they 
can be brought to flatness the better, and wherever they are not 
flat, there is a loss. Supposing the sails, then, to be flat, and the 
wind to strike them, part of the force is lost (as will be understood 
on mechanical principles), part of it presses against the flat surface 
of the sail, and perpendicularly to it. This then tends partly to 
drive the boat a-head, partly to drive the boat bodily to leeward, and 
if the boat was a box or tub, she would go in a direction between 
the two ; but as boats are usually constructed, they are sharp at 
the fore- end, and the surface opposed in that direction is not more 
than one-seventh of the surface which the nearly flat side opposes — 
hence the boat is driven easily ahead, but only a little or not at all 
to leeward, and boats are constructed so as to oppose as little re- 
sistance a-head and as much on the side as possible. Any boat will 
sail with the wind astern, and most boats will sail with the wind 
on the quarter — i. e., blowing in any direction between the stern and 
the broadside ; but only good boats will sail with the wdnd on the 
tow or hefore the ieam, and then not when the wind is more than 
four points before the beam, reckoning by the thirty-two points of 
the compass, and to do that, the sails must be w^ell set, and the boat 
pretty good. To explain how this is efiected, let us suppose a boat 
with her head pointing exactly towards the wind, then her sails will 
only flap about and tend to drive her astern. Now suppose her bow 
gradually turned away from the wind ; if the sails are hauled pretty 
flat, after a time, usually when her bow is four points or the eighth 
of a circle off from the wind, the sails will fill with wind, and, on the 
principles already explained, she will move ahead. And it is obvious 
that, after having gone some distance in this direction, she may 
be put about and go at a similar angle.to the wind in the other 
direction, and will thus have advanced against the wind, or towards 
the quarter from which the wind is blowing. This is called tacking 
or turning to loindward, and to do this well is the greatest proof of 
a good boat or of good sailing. In sailing to windward, the sails 
are trimmed or hauled aft to an angle which varies for each boat, 
and must be found by experience ; they should be kept just full of 
wind — if empty, they are doing no good, or even harm ; if too full, 
the boat is off her course, and not doing her best to windward. A 
rough rule is to keep the flag or vane just over the mainsail. Boats 
ought always to carry a weather helm — i.e., the bow should have a 
tendency to turn towards the wind. Putting w^eight in the bow 
makes the weather-helm stronger, putting it in the stern or in- 
creasing the head-sails has the reverse effect. When the wind is on 
the starboard or right-hand side of the vessel, she is said to be on 
the starboard taclz ; when the wind is on the port, larboard, or left 
side, she is said to be on the port tach, and when vessels meet, that 
which is on the starboard tack either keeps straight or luffs, that 
which is on the port tack gives way and passes to leeward. 

Whilst the beginner is trying to learn the principles and practice 



138 



SAILING. 



of sailing, he should give some sailor half-a-crown to teach hii» 
properly and quietly, on one or two rainy afternoons, how to hnoi 
and splice. He should learn a sliort splice, a long splice^ an eye splice, 
how to turn in a blochy how to pass a seizing, and how to whip the 
end of a rope ; all which must be shown, and will take some time to 
learn. Also tivo half -hitches and a clove-hitch, to make his boat fast 
with, a reef-Jcnof (avoiding a granny-Jcnot), a fisherman's bend, to 
bend the cable to the anchor with, and a sheep-shanJc. to shorten a 
rope with. A howline-Jcnot is more difficult, and is made as follows. 
Take part of a rope in your left hand, the end in your right hand ; 
lay the end over the part in your left hand, and with the left hand 
make a loop of that part over the end, crossing the loop. Take the 
end then under the lower part of the loop up over the cross and 
down through the loop, and draw tight. This will make a circle or 
loop of rope, and the knot will never slip. Besides this, the begin- 
ner should watch a boat whilst she is being fitted out, for unless he 
learns to refit every part of the rigging, in case of anything breaking, 
he is not fit to go out alone. 

The next vessel which the beginner will go oat in will probably be 
the cutter (Fig. 2) ; a vessel with one mast, four sails, and a rimiing 

Fig. 2. 




bowsprit, the fastest and best of all vessels. Small yachts are usually 
of this rig, and we therefore give a full description of it. 



SAILING, 



13^ 



Fig. 3. 



m\ 




At AjJTCHOii {a Fishing Smack). 



1. Stem. 

2. Stem. 

3. Situation of tiller (not shown.) 

4. Anchor (not shown). 

5. Cable. 

6. Bowsprit. 

7. Bobstay. 

8. Mast. 

9. Topmast. 

10. Truck. 

11. Yane and spindle.' 

12. Cross-trees. 
13—23. Caps. 
14. Gaff. 



15. Boom. 

16. Topmast-shroud. 

17. Main -shrouds. 

18. Topmast-stay. 

19. Runner and tackle. 

20. Traveller for jib. 

21. Forestay and fore- halyards, 

22. Topping lift. 

23. 24. Mainsheet. 
25, 25. Peak halyards. 

28. Bitts. 

29. Signal halyards. 

31. Foresail. 

32. Eudder. 



140 



SAILING. 



Ficr. 4. 




A. MAINSAIL. 



1. Clew \ 

2. Tack f 
S. Throat 

4. Peak ; 

5. After-leach 

6. Head 

7. Lujff or fore-leach 

8. Foot 



sides. 



9. Eeef- cringles (brass eyes for 
the reef-earing) . 

10. Reef-knittles (small ropes in 

the sail to tie up reefs with) . 

11. Reef-earing (rope to reef 

with). 

12. Main- sheet. 

13. 13. Mast hoops (tc bind the 

sail to the mast). 



SAILINa. 



141 



The mainsail has the gaff at the head, the loom at the foot. The 
gaff and sail are hoisted by the main-lialyards s^nd the peaJc-halyards. 
The tack is kept down by the tacJc tacUe (pronounced tayhle), the 
clew by the earing or lasUng. The boom is confined by the sheet. 
(See fig. 3.) The sail is laced to the gaff. 



14. Clew. 

15. Tack. 

16. Throat. 

17. Peak. 



GAFP- TOPSAIL. 

18. After-leach. 

19. Head. 

20. Fore-leach. 

21. Foot. 



The gaff- topsail has the to^mil-yard at the head ; the gaff at the- 
foot. It is hoisted by the topsail-halyards. The tack is kept down 
by the tach (a rope so called), and the clew by the topsail-sheet » 
(See fig. 3.) The sail is laced to the yard. 



C. POKESAIL. 



14. Clew \ 

15. Tack > corners. 

16. Head) 



17. After-leach) 

18. Fore- leach > sides. 

19. Foot ) 

20. Reef-knittles. 



The foresail is hoisted by the fore-halyards ; it runs on hauTcs, or 
is laced to the forestay. The tack is kept down by the /ore-^ac^ (a 
rope so called), the clew by the fore-sheet^ which often runs on an 
iron horse. 



D. JIB. 



29. Clew ) 

30. Tack \ i 

31. Head ) 



32. After-leach ) 

33. Fore-leach > sides. 

34. Foot ) 



The jib is hoisted by the jih-halyards and jih-purchase. The tack 
is hooked to an iron ring which runs on the bowsprit, and is called 
the traveller, being pulled out by the out-haid. The clew is confined 
by the jib- sheet. A jib is never reefed ; when the wind is too strong, 
it is shifted for a smaller jib. 



The gaff- topsail in a cutter is only set in light winds. Some cut- 
ters have also a square- sail, which is hoisted on the spread-yard^ as 
shown in Fig. 3, when the vessel is going before the wind ; and 
sometimes ?i jih-topsail, or flying jib, is set, something like the jib, 
but running from the top-masthead instead of the masthead. 

The stays and ropes which support the masts and bowsprit are 
called the standing rigging , and this is now often of wire rope ; the 
ropes which set the sails are called running rigging. 

Fig. 5 is a dandy, sometimes called a yawl ; she is not so fast as 
a cutter, but is used to avoid the inconvenience of the long, heavy 
boom. The rigging of her large mast, or mainmast^ is exactly like 



142 



SAILING. 



that of a cutter. The small mast is called the mizen-mast, an dthe 
sail the mizen. 

Fig. 5. 




i HE AMERICA. 



SAILING. 



143 



ihe mainmast is called the mainmil, the four-sided sail on the fore- 
mast the foresail, the triangular sail represented in Fig. 6 the fore- 
staysail, and when there is another triangular sail it is the jib. 
Schooners are either fore-and-aft schooners, as in Fig. 6, or square- 
topsail schooners, as in Fig. 7. Fig. 8 is an American schooner, a 



Fi^. 7. 




rig first introduced here in 1851 by the America. She carries in 
light winds a jib and a main gaff-topsail, but no fore gaff-topsail. 
English fore-and-aft schooners usually carry gaff-topsails on both 
masts. 

A square- topsail schooner (Fig. 7) carries a square-topsail and 
topgallant sail on her main-topmast, and a jib-topsail, or fore- topmast 
staysail. 

A Uogger has two or three masts with sails hoisted on yards, some- 
thing like a cutter's gaff- topsail. Some luggers carry also a jib. The 
advantage of this rig is its lightness ; no standing rigging is wanted. 
A sloop is a heavily-built and snugly-rigged trading vessel, rigged as 
a cutter, but carrying also a square topsail. An American sloop is a 
vessel fitted with two sails, as in fig. 1, but on a larger scale. She 
has usually a centre-hoard or sliding keel, which is hoisted up out of 
the water when the vessel is sailing before the wind and lowered 
down when she is going to windward. A sloop of war is a three- 
masted vessel with guns on her upper deck only. A latfeener has 
two or three short masts, carrying each a large triangular sail on a 
yard. They are common in the Mediterranean and in Norfolk. 
The above are the principal fore-and-aft rigged vessels, the dis- 



144 



SAILING. 



tinction being, that they are tacked by the rudder and without losing 
their way ; we now come to square-rigged vessels, which are stopped 
in tacking, and rely on their back sails to bring them round. A hrig 
has two masts, with yards and square- cut sails on each (see ship), 
and has a top, or sort of platform at each masthead. Colliers are 
usually of this rig. A hrigantine has a brig's foremast and a 
schooner's mainmast. A polacre hrig has no tops ; they are mostly 
from the Mediterranean. 

A ship, or as it is often called, a full- rigged ship, has three masts, 
each carrying yards and square-cut sails like a brig's. The masts 
are foreraast, mainmast, and mizenma^t ; each mast has a course, or 
lower sail, a topsail, top- gallant- sail, royal, and sometimes a small 
sail above that, called slcy-scraper. Between the masts are triangular 
sails called stay-sails, and what would be the mainsail in a cutter is 
called the spanker. Forward of the foremast she has 2^. fore- stay sail, 
foretopmast-staysail, jih, outer jib, &c. A harh has three masts, but 
no square yards on her mizenmast. 

We will add a few words on the cost of yachts. An open boat 
rigged as in fig. 1, from twelve to fourteen feet long, new and all 
complete, will cost from 161. to 20?. Small decked vessels under 
twenty tons will cost about 201. b. ton, larger vessels 251. a ton or 
more, according to the cabin fittings. An old vessel will cost from 
101. to 151. a ton, according to her state of repair, and it should 
always be remembered that the hull of the vessel is not above one- 
third of her cost, the other two-thirds being absorbed by the sails, 
rigging, &c., and cabin fittings; in buying a vessel, therefore, these 
things must be considered, at least as much as the hull. The usual 
crew is a captain and a man to every ten tons, wages from 11. Is, to 
11. 5s. a week, the men finding themselves in everything, except 
perhaps a suit of clothes at the beginning of the season. The total 
expense, including wear and tear, &c., will be about 11. a ton a 
month, if the vessel is only fitted out a short time in the year ; or 
if the owner is inexperienced, it will cost more. 



THE END. 



NOTEMBER, 1860. 



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THE STORY OE THE PEASANT BOY 
PHILOSOPHER. 

With Illustrations by John Gilbert, and numerous Diagrams. 



In crown 8vo, on tinted paper, price 5s., clotb, elegant gilt edges^ 

PICTURE EABLES. 

100 Designs by Otto Speckter, with Rhymes by Hey. 
In 1 Vol. post Svo, price 6s., cloth gilt, 

EXTRAORDINARY MEN AND WOMEN: 

THEIR CHILDHOOD AND EARLY LIFE. 
By W. RUSSELL, Esq. With many Illustrations. 

Or separately, price 2s, 6d. each, cloth gilt^ 
EXTEAOEDINARY MEN: 

THEIU BOYHOOD AND EAELY LIFE. 

EXTRAORDINARY WOMEN: 

THEIR GIRLHOOD AND EAELY LIFE. 
In crown Svo, price 5s., cloth gilt, 

ROBINSON CRUSOE. 

With 300 Designs by Grand ville. 



12 



NEW WORKS AND NEW EDITIONS, 



WORKS FOR THE YOUNG. 

J. G. EDGAR'S BOOKS FOR BOYS. 

In fcap. 8yo, price 3s. 6d., cloth gilt, 

THE BOYHOOD OF GREAT MEN. 

Illustrated by Birket Foster. 

POOTPRINTS OE FAMOUS MEN. 

Illustrated by Birket Foster. 

HISTORY FOR BOYS. 

With Eight Illustrations. 



In imp. 16mo, cloth gilt, price 3s. 6d. plain, or 6s. coloured, gilt edges, 

CROWQUILL'S (ALFRED) FAIRY TALES. 

Illustrated by the Author. 



AUNT MAYOR'S GIFT BOOKS. 

In super royal 8vo, with coloured Illustrations, price 3s. 6d., cloth gilt, 

NUESEEY TALES POE GOOD LITTLE BOYS. 
A STOEY BOOK EOE GOOD LITTLE GIELS. 
AUNT MAVOE'S TOY BOOK. 
A PEESENT EOE A GOOD LITTLE BOY. 
A PEESENT BOOK EOE A GOOD LITTLE GIEL. 
A STOEY BOOK EOE THE NUESEEY. 



In imp. ICmo, prijited on linen, price 2s. 6d., cloth gilt, 

THE EVERLASTING SPELLING AND 
READING BOOK. 

With many Pictures. 



FOR CHRISTMAS PRESENTS AND NEW YEAR'S GIFTS. 13 



WORKS FOR THE YOUNG. 



In post 8vo, on tinted paper, price 2s. 6d., cloth limp, 

NORTHCOTE'S FABLES. 

With 274 Woodcuts by the Author. 



A BOY'S TREASTJilY OF SPORTS & AITUSEMEITTS. 

In fcap. 8vo, price Is. 6d., cloth gilt, 

GAMES AND SPORTS FOR YOUNG BOYS. 

With ^Ninety lUastrations by C. H. Bennett, &c. 



In fcap. 8vo, price Is. 6d., cloth gilt, 

THE LITTLE ANGLER, PIGEON, AND 
RABBIT FANCIER. 

WITH CHAPTERS ON SILKWORMS AND THE AQUARIUM. 
By THOMAS MILLER. Ninety Illustrations. 



In fcap. 8yo, price Is. 6d., cloth gilt, 

GAMES OF SKILL AND CONJURING. 

Edited by C. H. BENNETT. 120 Illustrations. 



In fcap. 8vo, with mai.y Illustrations, price Is. 6d., clotb gilt, 

ATHLETIC SPORTS AND RECREATIONS. 

By Pvev. J. G. WOOD. 



Imp. 16nio, price 6d., or with the Plates coloured Is., 

THE ALPHABET OF ANIMALS. 

With Illustrations by Wolf, Weir, Zwecker, Coleman, &c. 



In imp. 16mo, Illustrated by Phiz, price Is. plain in boards, or coloured 
cloth gilt, Is. 6d. 

AUNT EFFIE'S RHYMES FOR CHILDREN. 



I 



FOR CHBISTMAS PRESENTS AND NEW YEARNS GIFTS. 21 



JUVENILE AND PRESENT BOOKS. 

Well printed, with IHustratioiis, in pott 8vo, price Is. each, cloth, 

ROUTLEDGE'S SHILLING JUVENILES. 

GRACE GREENWOOD'S STORIES FOR HER NEPHEWS 
NIECES. 

UNCLE FRANK'S HOME STORIES. 

HELEN'S FAULT. By the Author of Adelaide Lindsay." 

THE COUSINS. By Miss MINTOSH. 

PLEASANT WORDS, in Tales and Stories. By Miss SEDGWICK 
BEN HOWARD ; or. Truth and Honesty. By C. ADAMS. 
BESSIE AND TOM. A Book for Boys and Girls. 
BEECHNUT. A Franconian Story. By JACOB ABBOTT. 
WALLACE. A Franconian Story. By JACOB ABBOTT. 
MADELINE. A Story of the Early Spring Time, By JAC( 
ABBOTT. 

MARY ERSKINE. By JACOB ABBOTT. 

MARY BELL. By JACOB ABBOTT. 

YISIT^TO MY BIRTHPLACE. By Miss BUNBURY. 

CARL KRINKEN; or, The Christmas Stocking. By M 

WETHERELL. 
MR. RUTHERFORD'S CHILDREN. By ditto. 
EMILY HERBERT. By Miss M'INTOSH. 
ROSE AND LILLIE STANHOPE. By Miss MINTOSH. 
MR. RUTHERFORD'S CHILDREN. 2nd Series. By the Ant 

of " Queechy." 

CASPER. By the Author of " Mr. Rutherford's Children." 

THE BRAVE BOY ; or, Christian Heroism. 

MAGDALENE AND RAPHAEL; or, The Wonders of Vision. 

THE STORY OF A MOUSE. By Mrs. PERRING. 

OUR CHARLIE. By Mrs. STOWE. 

VILLAGE SCHOOL FEAST. By Mrs. PERRING. 

NELLY, THE GIPSY GIRL. 

THE BIRTH-DAY VISIT. By the Author of " Queechy.** 
STORIES FOR WEEK DAYS AND SUNDAYS. 



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